Investigating the interactive effects of habitat type and light intensity on rocky shores.

Light availability and habitat complexity are two key drivers of community assembly. Urbanisation has been shown to affect both, with important consequences to ecological communities. On the intertidal, for instance, studies have shown that light intensity is greater on natural rocky shores than on less complex artificial habitats (seawalls), though different habitats can also experience similar light intensities, for example when shaded by urban structures. Understanding therefore how these factors individually, and combined, affect communities is important to understand the mechanisms driving changes in community structure, and consequently provide solutions to tackle the increasing homogenisation of habitats and lightscapes in urbanised spaces through smart infrastructure designs. Here, we assessed how different light levels affect the recruitment of communities in rock pools and on emergent rock on an intertidal rocky shore. We cleared 30 patches of emergent rock and 30 rock pools and manipulated light using shades with different light transmissions (full light, procedural control, 75%, 35%, and 15% light transmission, full shade) and assessed mobile and sessile communities monthly for 6 months. Effects of reducing light levels were generally stronger on rock than in pools. Fully shaded plots supported double the amount of mobile organisms than plots in full sunlight, in both habitats. Algal cover was higher in pools compared to rock, and at intermediate light levels, but effects varied with site. This study highlights the importance of variable light conditions and different habitats for rocky shore communities, which should be considered in future coastal developments to retain natural biodiversity.

Spatial variation in microbial communities associated with sea-ice algae in Commonwealth Bay, East Antarctica.

Antarctic sea-ice forms a complex and dynamic system that drives many ecological processes in the Southern Ocean. Sea-ice microalgae and their associated microbial communities are understood to influence nutrient flow and allocation in marine polar environments. Sea-ice microalgae and their microbiota can have high seasonal and regional (>1000 km2) compositional and abundance variation, driven by factors modulating their growth, symbiotic interactions and function. In contrast, our knowledge of small-scale variation in these communities is limited. Understanding variation across multiple scales and its potential drivers is critical for informing on how multiple stressors impact sea-ice communities and the functions they provide. Here, we characterized bacterial communities associated with sea-ice microalgae and the potential drivers that influence their variation across a range of spatial scales (metres to >10 kms) in a previously understudied area in Commonwealth Bay, East Antarctica where anomalous events have substantially and rapidly expanded local sea-ice coverage. We found a higher abundance and different composition of bacterial communities living in sea-ice microalgae closer to the shore compared to those further from the coast. Variation in community structure increased linearly with distance between samples. Ice thickness and depth to the seabed were found to be poor predictors of these communities. Further research on the small-scale environmental drivers influencing these communities is needed to fully understand how large-scale regional events can affect local function and ecosystem processes.

Desalination Discharge Influences the Composition of Reef Invertebrate and Fish Assemblages.

Large-scale desalination is used increasingly to address growing freshwater demands and climate uncertainty. Discharge of hypersaline brine from desalination operations has the potential to impact marine ecosystems. Here, we used a 7-year Multiple-Before-After-Control-Impact experiment to test the hypothesis that hypersaline discharge from reverse osmosis desalination alters temperate reef communities. Using replicated, video-based, timed searches at eight sites, we sampled fish and invertebrate assemblages before, during, and after the discharge of hypersaline brine. We found that the composition of fish assemblages was significantly altered out to 55 m while the composition of invertebrate assemblages was altered out to 125 m from the outlet during hypersaline discharge. Fish richness and functional diversity increased around the outlet, while the invertebrate assemblages were no less diverse than those on reference reefs. Differences in faunal assemblages between outlet and reference sites during discharging included changes in the frequency of occurrence of both common and rare reef biota. Overall, we found the influence of hypersaline discharge on temperate reef biota to be spatially localized, with the reefs around the outlet continuing to support rich and diverse faunal communities. In some cases, therefore, the marine environmental consequences of large-scale, well-designed, desalination operations may be appropriately balanced against the positive benefits of improved water security.

Evaluating the social and ecological effectiveness of partially protected marine areas.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some form of fishing). Although fully protected areas have well-documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass, the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their ecological goals to distinguish them from open areas and justify the cost of protection. We assessed the social perceptions and ecological effectiveness of 18 partially protected areas and 19 fully protected areas compared with 19 open areas along 7000 km of coast of southern Australia. We used mixed methods, gathering data via semistructured interviews, site surveys, and Reef Life (underwater visual census) surveys. We analyzed qualitative data in accordance with grounded theory and quantitative data with multivariate and univariate linear mixed-effects models. We found no social or ecological benefits for partially protected areas relative to open areas in our study. Partially protected areas had no more fish, invertebrates, or algae than open areas; were poorly understood by coastal users; were not more attractive than open areas; and were not perceived to have better marine life than open areas. These findings provide an important counterpoint to some large-scale meta-analyses that conclude partially protected areas can be ecologically effective but that draw this conclusion based on narrower measures. We argue that partially protected areas act as red herrings in marine conservation because they create an illusion of protection and consume scarce conservation resources yet provide little or no social or ecological gain over open areas. Fully protected areas, by contrast, have more fish species and biomass and are well understood, supported, and valued by the public. They are perceived to have better marine life and be improving over time in keeping with actual ecological results. Conservation outcomes can be improved by upgrading partially protected areas to higher levels of protection including conversion to fully protected areas.

Análisis de la Efectividad Social y Ecológica de las Áreas Marinas Parcialmente Protegidas Resumen Las áreas marinas protegidas (AMPs) son una herramienta importante para la administración, conservación y restauración de los ecosistemas marinos; sin embargo, el 69% de las AMPs mundiales solamente están parcialmente protegidas (es decir, están abiertas a alguna forma de pesca). Aunque las áreas completamente protegidas tienen resultados bien documentados, incluyendo el incremento en la diversidad de peces y la biomasa, la efectividad de las áreas parcialmente protegidas está en disputa. Puede que las áreas parcialmente protegidas se justifiquen por razones sociales, aunque los resultados sociales con frecuencia dependen de que las AMPs alcancen sus metas ecológicas para distinguirlas de las áreas abiertas y justificar el costo de la protección. Analizamos las percepciones sociales y la efectividad ecológica de 18 áreas parcialmente protegidas y 19 áreas completamente protegidas a lo largo de 7000 km de costa en el sur de Australia. Usamos métodos mixtos, recopilando información por medio de entrevistas semiestructuradas, encuestas en sitio y censos Reef Life (censos visuales submarinos). Analizamos los datos cualitativos de acuerdo con la teoría fundamentada y los datos cuantitativos con modelos lineales de efectos mixtos multivariados y univariados. No encontramos beneficios sociales o ecológicos para las áreas parcialmente protegidas en relación con las áreas abiertas en nuestro estudio. Las áreas parcialmente protegidas no tuvieron más peces, invertebrados o algas que las áreas abiertas; los usuarios de la costa tenían poco entendimiento de ellas; no eran más atractivas que las áreas abiertas; y no eran percibidas como albergues de mejor vida marina que las áreas abiertas. Estos hallazgos proporcionan un contrapunto importante a algunos metaanálisis a gran escala que concluyen que las áreas parcialmente protegidas pueden ser ecológicamente efectivas, pero llegan a esta conclusión con base en medidas más reducidas. Discutimos que las áreas parcialmente protegidas funcionan como pistas falsas para la conservación marina pues crean una ilusión de estar protegidas y consumen pocos recursos para la conservación, pero proporcionan poca o ninguna ganancia ecológica o social en comparación con las áreas abiertas. Las áreas completamente protegidas, al contrario, tienen más especies de peces y biomasa y están bien comprendidas, respaldadas y valoradas por el público. Este tipo de AMPs son percibidas como albergues de mejor vida marina y como en constante mejora con el tiempo al mantenerse en regla con los resultados ecológicos actuales. Los resultados de la conservación pueden mejorarse si se eleva a las áreas parcialmente protegidas a niveles más altos de protección incluyendo la conversión a áreas completamente protegidas.

Effect of Desalination Discharge on the Abundance and Diversity of Reef Fishes.

Global growth in desalination industries has increased the need for an evidence-based understanding of associated environmental impacts. We completed a seven-year assessment of the responses of fish assemblages to hypersaline discharge from the large Sydney Desalination Plant. At 12 times before, eight times during, and four times following the cessation of discharging hypersaline brine, we sampled reef fishes at two outlet sites and two close reference sites, as well as four reference sites that were located from 2-8 km from the outlet. At each site and each time of sampling, five 50 m video transects were used to sample reef fish assemblages. Following the commencement of discharging, there was a 279% increase in the abundance of fish around the outlet, which included substantially greater abundances of pelagic and demersal fish, as well as fishes targeted by recreational and commercial fishers. Following the cessation of discharge, abundances of fishes mostly returned to levels such that there was no longer a significant effect compared to the period prior to the commencement of the desalination plant's operations. Overall, our results demonstrate that well-designed marine infrastructure and processes used to support the growing demand for potable water can also enhance local fish abundances and species richness.

Variation in cownose ray Rhinoptera neglecta abundance and group size on the central east coast of Australia.

Here, we provide baseline information about the relative abundance and group size of the Australian cownose ray Rhinoptera neglecta on the central east coast of Australia. Using drone monitoring over 2 years, we completed 293 transects, each 2 km in length, at four locations distributed along c.100 km of coast. In total, 5979 R. neglecta were observed with overall relative abundance (±SE) of, 20.4 (±3.3) individuals per transect. The numbers of R. neglecta varied among locations, with the highest density found off the beach adjacent to the river mouth at Evans Head. The number of rays observed also decreased with increasing wind speed. While some of this relationship was probably associated with visibility, R. neglecta may also move offshore during strong winds. We found no evidence that R. neglecta was under significant threat. Additionally, our cost-effective surveys demonstrate the utility of aerial drones in fisheries conservation biology.

Habitat complexity effects on diversity and abundance differ with latitude: an experimental study over 20 degrees.

Habitat complexity is accepted as a general mechanism for increasing the abundance and diversity of communities. However, the circumstances under which complexity has the strongest effects are not clear. Over 20 degrees of Australia's east coast, we tested whether the effects of within-site structural habitat complexity on the diversity and community structure of sessile marine invertebrates was consistent over a latitudinal gradient where environmental conditions and species composition vary. We used experimental arrays with varied structural treatments to detect whether community cover, species richness, diversity and community composition (ß-diversity) changed with increasing complexity. Community response to complexity varied over latitude due to differences in species richness and community development. Increased complexity had the greatest positive effects on community cover and species richness at higher latitudes where recruitment and growth were low. At lower latitudes, community cover and species richness were higher overall and did not vary substantially between complexity treatments. Latitudinal variation in within-treatment ß-diversity relative to complexity further suggest divergent community responses. At higher latitudes, increased similarity in more complex treatments suggests community dominance of successful taxonomic groups. Despite limited effects on species richness and community cover at lower latitudes, ß-diversity was higher in more complex treatments, signifying potential positive effects of increased complexity at these sites. These results demonstrate the context-dependency of complexity effects in response to variation in species richness and community development and should be taken into consideration to help direct conservation and restoration efforts.

Latitudinal variation in the competition-colonisation trade-off reveals rate-mediated mechanisms of coexistence.

Theories of species coexistence often describe a trade-off between colonising and competitive abilities. In sessile marine invertebrates, this trade-off can manifest as trends in species distributions relative to the size of isolated patches of substrate. Based on their abilities to find available substrate and competitively exclude neighbours, good colonisers tend to dominate smaller patches, whereas better competitors tend to monopolise larger patches. In theory, species with equivalent colonising and competitive abilities should display similar distributions across patch sizes. We used patch size to observe this manifestation of the competition-colonisation trade-off over 20° of latitude. The trade-off was more readily observed at lower latitudes and was proportional to the 'ecological age' of communities (i.e. the degree of resource acquisition and likelihood of species interactions). Results suggest that ecological age may mediate the prominence of stochastic or deterministic coexistence mechanisms and will depend on the rate of ecological processes.

Assessing National Biodiversity Trends for Rocky and Coral Reefs through the Integration of Citizen Science and Scientific Monitoring Programs.

Reporting progress against targets for international biodiversity agreements is hindered by a shortage of suitable biodiversity data. We describe a cost-effective system involving Reef Life Survey citizen scientists in the systematic collection of quantitative data covering multiple phyla that can underpin numerous marine biodiversity indicators at high spatial and temporal resolution. We then summarize the findings of a continental- and decadal-scale State of the Environment assessment for rocky and coral reefs based on indicators of ecosystem state relating to fishing, ocean warming, and invasive species and describing the distribution of threatened species. Fishing impacts are widespread, whereas substantial warming-related change affected some regions between 2005 and 2015. Invasive species are concentrated near harbors in southeastern Australia, and the threatened-species index is highest for the Great Australian Bight and Tasman Sea. Our approach can be applied globally to improve reporting against biodiversity targets and enhance public and policymakers' understanding of marine biodiversity trends.

Corrigendum: Assessing National Biodiversity Trends for Rocky and Coral Reefs through the Integration of Citizen Science and Scientific Monitoring Programs.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biw180.].

Elevated nutrients change bacterial community composition and connectivity: high throughput sequencing of young marine biofilms.

Biofilms are integral to many marine processes but their formation and function may be affected by anthropogenic inputs that alter environmental conditions, including fertilisers that increase nutrients. Density composition and connectivity of biofilms developed in situ (under ambient and elevated nutrients) were compared using 454-pyrosequencing of the 16S gene. Elevated nutrients shifted community composition from bacteria involved in higher processes (eg Pseudoalteromonas spp. invertebrate recruitment) towards more nutrient-tolerant bacterial species (eg Terendinibacter sp.). This may enable the persistence of biofilm communities by increasing resistance to nutrient inputs. A core biofilm microbiome was identified (predominantly Alteromonadales and Oceanospirillales) and revealed shifts in abundances of core microbes that could indicate enrichment by fertilisers. Fertiliser decreased density and connectivity within biofilms indicating that associations were disrupted perhaps via changes to energetic allocations within the core microbiome. Density composition and connectivity changes suggest nutrients can affect the stability and function of these important marine communities.

Intrinsic time dependence in the diversity-invasibility relationship.

Contrasting patterns in the diversity-invasibility relationship have intrigued ecologists for many years, and are now known as the "invasion paradox." Experiments usually detect negative relationships, while field surveys find them to be positive. It is widely believed that the paradox is driven by differences in spatial scale, but this is challenged by field surveys that find positive relationships at all spatial scales. If factors that determine invasion dynamics change during the invasion process, the paradox may be partially driven by differences in temporal scale. Here we used simulation (cellular automata) models to explore the generality of temporal change in the diversity-invasibility relationship. The probability of invaders colonizing an area was inversely related to the density of natives, creating a negative native-exotic correlation when invaders first arrived. Over time, native and exotic populations were both shaped by the same post-introduction processes (disturbance, dispersal, and recolonization), shifting their correlation to positive. The rate of temporal change in the diversity-invasibility relationship was mainly dependent upon the fecundity of invaders. Greater fecundity meant that invaders spread through the landscape faster and were subject to post-introduction processes sooner. We propose a unified conceptual model where the diversity-invasiblity relationship is a function of both spatial and temporal scales.

Light-driven tipping points in polar ecosystems.

Some ecosystems can undergo abrupt transformation in response to relatively small environmental change. Identifying imminent 'tipping points' is crucial for biodiversity conservation, particularly in the face of climate change. Here, we describe a tipping point mechanism likely to induce widespread regime shifts in polar ecosystems. Seasonal snow and ice-cover periodically block sunlight reaching polar ecosystems, but the effect of this on annual light depends critically on the timing of cover within the annual solar cycle. At high latitudes, sunlight is strongly seasonal, and ice-free days around the summer solstice receive orders of magnitude more light than those in winter. Early melt that brings the date of ice-loss closer to midsummer will cause an exponential increase in the amount of sunlight reaching some ecosystems per year. This is likely to drive ecological tipping points in which primary producers (plants and algae) flourish and out-compete dark-adapted communities. We demonstrate this principle on Antarctic shallow seabed ecosystems, which our data suggest are sensitive to small changes in the timing of sea-ice loss. Algae respond to light thresholds that are easily exceeded by a slight reduction in sea-ice duration. Earlier sea-ice loss is likely to cause extensive regime shifts in which endemic shallow-water invertebrate communities are replaced by algae, reducing coastal biodiversity and fundamentally changing ecosystem functioning. Modeling shows that recent changes in ice and snow cover have already transformed annual light budgets in large areas of the Arctic and Antarctic, and both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are likely to experience further significant change in light. The interaction between ice-loss and solar irradiance renders polar ecosystems acutely vulnerable to abrupt ecosystem change, as light-driven tipping points are readily breached by relatively slight shifts in the timing of snow and ice-loss.

Land use and COVID-19 lockdowns influence debris composition and abundance in stormwater drains.

Stormwater drains act as a pathway for anthropogenic debris from land to sea, particularly in urbanised estuaries where impervious surfaces expedite the process. Debris type and abundance in stormwater drains may vary due to land use and human activity, and knowledge of this variation is necessary to manage the growing threat of debris. Surveys of stormwater debris can inform targeted reduction and remediation efforts by intercepting and identifying pollutants near their source. We surveyed replicate stormwater gross pollutant traps across four land use zones (city centre, shopping centre, transportation hub, industrial precinct) before and during COVID-19 measures to assess the effects of changing human activities. Gross pollutant traps were installed in 120 drains in Greater Melbourne, Australia, and citizen scientists trained by Tangaroa Blue Foundation weighed and classified debris at 6-week intervals between October 2019 and October 2020. Four survey cycles were conducted before lockdowns were implemented, then another four during lockdowns. COVID-19 lockdowns and patterns of debris type and abundance across land use revealed how changes in human activity might impact the flow of debris. Cigarette butts were the most abundant macro debris (>5 mm) item in every survey cycle, regardless of lockdowns. Industrial land use zones had the lowest macro debris counts but contained over 90 % of the micro debris (1-5 mm). The amount of total macro debris decreased during lockdowns, however the most abundant and problematic debris items such as cigarettes and single-use plastics did not decrease as much as might be expected from the concomitant reductions in human activity. Occupational health and safety items, such as masks and gloves, increased (144 %) during COVID-19 lockdowns. Micro debris counts did not change in industrial zones during lockdowns, suggesting that workplace interventions may be necessary to reduce this debris leakage. Tracing the pathway of debris from source to sea can inform reduction and long-term management strategies.

Assessing human and physical drivers of macro-plastic debris spatially across Queensland, Australia.

Plastic pollution poses environmental and socio-economic risks, requiring policy and management interventions. The evidence-base for informing management and evaluation of their effectiveness is limited. Partnerships with citizen scientists provide opportunities to increase the spatio-temporal scale of monitoring programs, where training and standardised protocols provides opportunities for the use of data in addressing multiple hypotheses. Here, we provide a baseline of debris trends and infer debris drivers of abundance across 18° of latitude, using 168 surveys from 17 beaches across Queensland, Australia through the ReefClean project. Plastics were the dominant material (87% of total debris, with hard, soft and foam plastics aggregated), although linking recovered debris to sources was limited, as 67% of items were fragmented. We tested potential drivers of specific debris types (i.e., plastics, commercial fishing items, items dumped at-sea, and single-use items) and identified significant relationships between debris accumulation with distance from the nearest population centre and site characteristics (modal beach state, beach orientation and across-beach section). Management efforts should consider beach type and orientation within site selection, as an opportunity to maximise the amount recovered, alongside other criteria such as the risks posed by debris on environmental, economic, and social values. This study demonstrates the utility of citizen science to provide baselines and infer drivers of debris, through data gathered at scales that are infeasible to most formal monitoring programs. The identified drivers of debris may also differ from regional and global studies, where monitoring at relevant scales is needed for effective management.

Piers are hotspots for benthic marine debris in an urbanised estuary.

Records of anthropogenic marine debris and the threats it poses are increasing worldwide, yet we know relatively little about the distribution of benthic debris. The seafloor is the final destination for a large proportion of debris due to the degradation and sinking of items. A more detailed understanding of debris distributions in hotspots such as urbanised estuaries can help decision makers target management and remediation activities. We selected sites frequented by fishers and boaters in Sydney Harbour, an urbanised estuary, to investigate the impacts of recreational activities on debris abundance. The aim of this study was to examine variation in macro debris (>5mm in diameter) type and abundance at two habitat types (piers and non-piers). We chose five locations at various distances from the estuary mouth. In each location SCUBA teams performed fixed transects at two sites, one under a pier and one over nearby soft-sediment habitat. Debris was recovered by the divers and brought to the surface for classification and disposal. Surveys were repeated multiple times at each location between November 2019 and February 2020, recording a total of 2803 debris items over 36 survey events. Overall, piers had more than ten times the debris abundance of soft-sediment sites, and much higher proportion of debris types related to recreational fishing. Over half of the debris items in this study were plastic (65%), and approximately 70% of the total debris was classified as related to recreational fishing. This trait was most prominent in debris at sites closest to the estuary mouth, likely reflecting increased fishing activity in this area. This study indicates that policy makers and community groups in urbanised estuaries should focus monitoring, reduction, and remediation efforts near artificial structures such as piers, and that public awareness campaigns should target the behaviour of recreational users of these structures.

Continental patterns in marine debris revealed by a decade of citizen science.

Anthropogenic marine debris is a persistent threat to oceans, imposing risks to ecosystems and the communities they support. Whilst an understanding of marine debris risks is steadily advancing, monitoring at spatial and temporal scales relevant to management remains limited. Citizen science projects address this shortcoming but are often critiqued on data accuracy and potential bias in sampling efforts. Here we present 10-years of Australia's largest marine debris database - the Australian Marine Debris Initiative (AMDI), in which we perform systematic data filtering, test for differences between collecting groups, and report patterns in marine debris. We defined five stages of data filtering to address issues in data quality and to limit inference to ocean-facing sandy beaches. Significant differences were observed in the average accumulation of items between filtered and remaining data. Further, differences in sampling were compared between collecting groups at the same site (e.g., government, NGOs, and schools), where no significant differences were observed. The filtering process removed 21% of events due to data quality issues and a further 42% of events to restrict analyses to ocean-facing sandy beaches. The remaining 7275 events across 852 sites allowed for an assessment of debris patterns at an unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. Hard plastics were the most common material found on beaches both nationally and regionally, consisting of up to 75% of total debris. Nationally, land and sea-sourced items accounted for 48% and 7% of debris, respectively, with most debris found on the east coast of Australia. This study demonstrates the value of citizen science datasets with broad spatial and temporal coverage, and the importance of data filtering to improve data quality. The citizen science presented provides an understanding of debris patterns on Australia's ocean beaches and can serve as a foundation for future source reduction plans.

Increased shark bite survivability revealed by two centuries of Australian records.

The perceived and real threat of shark bites have significant direct health and indirect economic impacts. Here we assess the changing odds of surviving an unprovoked shark bite using 200 years of Australian records. Bite survivability rates for bull (Carcharhinus leucas), tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier) and white (Carcharodon carcharias) sharks were assessed relative to environmental and anthropogenic factors. Survivability of unprovoked bull, tiger and white shark bites were 62, 75 and 53% respectively. Bull shark survivability increased over time between 1807 and 2018. Survivability decreased for both tiger and white sharks when the person was doing an in water activity, such as swimming or diving. Not unsurprisingly, a watercraft for protection/floatation increased survivability to 92% from 30%, and 88% from 45%, for tiger and white sharks respectively. We speculate that survival may be related to time between injury and treatment, indicating the importance of rapid and appropriate medical care. Understanding the predictors of unprovoked bites, as well as survivability (year and water activity), may be useful for developing strategies that reduce the number of serious or fatal human-shark interactions without impacting sharks and other marine wildlife.

Temporal change in the diversity-invasibility relationship in the presence of a disturbance regime.

Disturbance can affect both the diversity and invasibility of communities. Many field studies have found correlations between diversity and susceptibility to invasion, but if both factors independently respond to disturbance then spurious non-causal relationships may be observed. Here, we show that disturbance can cause a temporal shift in the diversity-invasibility relationship. In a field experiment using sessile marine communities, disturbance strongly affected both diversity and invasion such that they were highly correlated. Disturbance facilitated initial invasion, creating a negative diversity-invasibility relationship when the invader first arrived. Over time, disturbance hindered the persistence of invaders, creating a positive diversity-invasibility relationship. We suggest that temporal changes in the diversity-invasibility relationship may have contributed to the 'invasion paradox', a term for the contrasting patterns of experimental and observational studies of the diversity-invasibility relationship.

LESI: A quantitative indicator to measure local environmental stewardship.

This method develops a local environmental stewardship indicator (LESI), which represents the level of stewardship action of a person at a place. The goal of the indicator is to quantify stewardship activity and allow it to be compared and modelled. LESI requires a brief interview to ascertain an individual's past and current stewardship activities, which are scored on a frequency scale for each of seven action categories. Scores are then combined using the LESI equation to: • Quantify reported stewardship behaviour (as opposed to attitudes or intentions) as a single number. • Enable comparisons of stewardship between individuals and places. • Allow development of models to understand the predictors of stewardship, and • Inform evidence-based strategies for stewardship improvement.