Crying as a gendered indicator of depression.

Crying is a gendered activity; women in the general population are known to cry more than men. However, crying is also used as a sign of depression. Its use may explain some of the discrepancy in rates of depression in men and women. We suggest that crying is an invalid indicator because of its gendered status and should be removed from the diagnostic criteria for depression. Men may show other symptoms when depressed more than women, such as aggression and irritability. The inclusion of crying items in depression instruments may therefore introduce a gender bias in the assessment of depression.

Crying, oral contraceptive use and the menstrual cycle.

BACKGROUND: Crying, a complex neurobiological behavior with psychosocial and communication features, has been little studied in relationship to the menstrual cycle. METHODS: In the Mood and Daily Life study (MiDL), a community sample of Canadian women aged 18-43 years, n=76, recorded crying proneness and crying frequency daily for six months along with menstrual cycle phase information. RESULTS: Crying proneness was most likely during the premenstruum, a little less likely during menses and least likely during the mid-cycle phase, with statistically significant differences although the magnitude of these differences were small. By contrast, actual crying did not differ between the three menstrual cycle phases. Oral contraceptive use did not alter the relationship between menstrual cycle phase and either crying variable. A wide range of menstrual cycle phase - crying proneness patterns were seen with visual inspection of the individual women's line graphs. LIMITATIONS: timing of ovulation was not ascertained. Using a three phase menstrual cycle division precluded separate late follicular and early luteal data analysis. The sample size was inadequate for a robust statistical test of actual crying. CONCLUSIONS: reproductive aged women as a group report feeling more like crying premenstrually but may not actually cry more during this menstrual cycle phase. Individual patterns vary substantially. Oral contraceptive use did not affect these relationships. Suggestions for future research are included.

Women's perceptions of influences on their mood.

AIMS: Knowledge of prevailing community ideas about mood determination can guide research about variability in mood. A random sample of urban Canadian women, aged 18-40 years (n = 507), was asked to compare the relative importance of three specified domains (physical health, social support, stress) as influences on their mood and then to list additional life experiences they considered important. They also rated the frequency and recurrence patterns (cyclicity) of their daily positive and negative moods. RESULTS: More women reported a positive overall mood than negative mood. Of three domains studied, social support was listed as the greatest influence on positive mood and stress on negative mood in the bivariate tests. More frequent moods (both positive and negative) were more likely to be viewed as recurrent or cyclical. Patterns of influence for positive mood differed from those for negative mood. Multivariate modeling found that women reporting frequent positive mood were more often North American and employed full-time and likely to consider stress or lack of stress was unimportant as an influence on positive mood. The only factors in the model associated with frequent negative mood were the perception of physical health and stress as important influences on negative mood. Less than 5% cited menstrual cycle phase as an influence. CONCLUSIONS: These subjective data suggest that women perceived a wide range of external, usually interpersonal, influences as relevant to their mood, however menstrual cycle was rarely mentioned. Perceptions of influences on mood are statistically related to frequency of moods. In addition, ethnicity and paid employment are independently associated with positive mood.