Heavy Alcohol Use Among Migrant and Non-Migrant Male Sex Workers in Thailand: A Neglected HIV/STI Vulnerability.

BACKGROUND: There is scarce research on male sex workers in the context of alcohol use. While heavy alcohol use has been established as a risk factor for HIV and STI infections among men who have sex with men (MSM), men who engage in sex work with other men, particularly from the Global South, have not been included in these studies. Moreover, studies among male sex workers in Asia often do not explore migration contexts of these men. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this exploratory study is to examine the prevalence and correlates of heavy alcohol use among migrant and non-migrant male sex workers in Bangkok and Pattaya, Central Thailand. METHODS: Between August and October 2015, 18-24 year-old migrant and non-migrant male sex workers (n = 212) were recruited from various male sex work-identified venues (bars, clubs, massage parlors, and go-go bars) to take an interviewer-administered cross-sectional survey in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand. Measures were adapted from previous studies in similar populations and included structured questions across four domains, including demographic characteristics, alcohol use, stimulant use, and sexual behaviors. Multivariable logistic regression assessed the independent associations between heavy alcohol use (heavy versus not heavy) and demographic characteristics, stimulant use and sexual behavior. RESULTS: Heavy alcohol use was prevalent among one-third of participants. Heavy alcohol use was positively associated with male sex workers who were non-migrant and Thai, currently using stimulants, having 15 or more male clients in the past month and having first consumed alcohol at age 15 years or younger. CONCLUSIONS: Current HIV prevention efforts should consider subpopulations of MSM, including male sex workers and migrants, as well as other risk behaviors like alcohol, as important contexts for HIV and STI risks.

Sexual Initiation and Complex Recent Polydrug Use Patterns Among Male Sex Workers in Vietnam: A Preliminary Epidemiological Trajectory.

Little is known about the age of onset of sexual and drug risk and their association with complex patterns of recent drug use among male sex workers (MSW) in a developing country, such as Vietnam. The aim of this study was to determine whether latent class analysis (LCA) would aid in the detection of current individual and polydrug use combinations to predict how different trajectories of sexual and drug initiation contribute to different patterns of current illicit drug use. Data were collected from a cross-sectional survey administered to young MSWs between 2010 and 2011 in Vietnam (N = 710). LCA clustered participants into recent drug use groups, incorporating both the specific types and overall count of different drugs used. Men reported drug use within a 1 month period from an 11-item drug use list. LCA identified three distinct drug use classes: (1) alcohol use, (2) alcohol and tobacco use, and (3) high polydrug use. The current drug use classes are associated with sex worker status, housing stability, income level, educational attainment, marital status, sexual identity, and sexual preferences. High levels of drug use are strongly associated with being a recent sex worker, not having recent stable housing, higher than median income, more than a high school education, less likely to be currently in school and more likely to have non-homosexual preferences and heterosexual partners. An event history analysis approach (time-event displays) examined the timing of the age of onset of drug and sexual risks. Early ages of drug and sexual initiation are seen for all three classes. High current drug users show earlier onset of these risks, which are significantly delayed for moderate and low current drug users. LCA incorporating an overall count of different drugs detected three distinct current drug use classes. The data illustrates that the complexity of drug factors that must be accounted for, both in advancing our epidemiological understanding of the complexity of drug use and the use of drug and sexual risk initiation data to predict current drug use subtypes among high-risk populations.

The Risk Environment of Heroin Use Initiation: Young Women, Intimate Partners, and "Drug Relationships".

This paper examines young women's initiation to heroin use in the context of an intimate relationship based on data from a small-scale ethno-epidemiology of heroin use in Ireland, 2007-2009. The epidemiological sample included 120 young people, and life history interviews were conducted with a sub-sample of 40 youth aged 16-25 years. A detailed analysis of the "risk environment" of young women's heroin initiation highlights a complex interplay between women's agency and intimate partner influence. It is argued that dichotomous representations of women as victims or emancipated consumers do not adequately capture the complexity of women's initiation journeys. The study's limitations are noted and implications for drug use prevention and harm reduction strategies are discussed.

Prevalence and Correlates of Penile HPV Infection in a Clinic-Based Sample of Hispanic Males.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this manuscript is to describe the prevalence, genotypic distribution of penile HPV infection and the behavioral risk factors associated with penile HPV infection (any HPV type, high-oncogenic-risk [HR] types, low-oncogenic-risk [LR] types, and of multiple HPV types) in a group of sexually active males who went to an STI clinic in San Juan, Puerto Rico. METHODS: After providing informed consent, the participants, underwent a detailed behavioral interview and a clinical examination. Frequency distributions and descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study samples. Prevalence estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for any type of HPV, HR types, LR types, or multiple types. Logistic regression analyses was performed to determine factors associated with each of the HPV types. RESULTS: Two hundred and six participants were enrolled in this study. The mean age of the participants was 37.8±13.1 years. Close to 80% of the sample were infected with at least one HPV type; 73.5% were infected with one or more LR-HPV types; 32.4%, with one or more HR-HPV types; and 46.0%, with multiple HPV types. The most prevalent HR types were HPV-35, -31, and -16; the most prevalent LR types were HPV 6/11, and -84. After adjusting for age, having a high number of lifetime female sexual partners was highly associated with having multiple types of HPV infection (estimated OR=2.86; 95% CI=1.41, 5.80). CONCLUSION: HPV infection is common among sexually active males frequenting this STI clinic. HPV types not covered by the current quadrivalent HPV vaccine were identified. Multiple HPV types in the penis are significantly related to the lifetime number of female sexual partners. The high prevalence of HPV at this particular STI clinic evidences that males need to be targeted in primary care settings if the available vaccine is to be effectively promoted. In addition, opportunities for secondary prevention of HPV in STI settings are recommended, because of the burden of anal and penile cancer documented in the island.

Injection and sexual risk practices among young heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam.

Epidemiological data in Vietnam shows high HIV prevalence rates among injection drug users, especially in urban centres. However, there are limited data on specific practices used to prepare and inject drugs or on sexual practices among Vietnamese injectors. A street-based cross-sectional interview was conducted with 862 heroin injectors in Hanoi, Vietnam, to collect such data. Variability was seen in both injection and sexual risk, with 12.9% of current injectors reporting at least one unsafe method of drug sharing and 57.1% reporting unsafe sex in the past 30 days. These risks were strongly associated with those who engaged in unsafe injection significantly more likely to engage in unsafe sex (69.4% vs. 55.3%) and those engaging in unsafe sex significantly more likely to engage in unsafe injection (15.7% vs. 9.2%). These findings highlight the overlap of injection and sexual risk practices among Vietnamese heroin users and suggest the need for strong, broadly targeted HIV prevention activities among this population.

Risk factors for suicide attempts in a clinic-based sample of people living with HIV in Puerto Rico.

Puerto Rico (PR) has a large and rapidly growing population of people living with HIV. However, relatively little behavioral or clinical research has been done in this population. As treatment for HIV increasingly moves into a chronic condition model, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the needs of this population so critical social and behavioral interventions can be developed, thus enabling the individual and community-level benefits of antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to be fully realized. To date, however, there has been very little research on the mental health needs of people living with HIV in PR, a fact that constrains intervention development and implementation. This paper describes data from a public sexually transmitted infection (STI) and HIV clinic study in the San Juan metropolitan area between April 2010 and December 2012 (n = 1185), roughly a third (36%) of whom are living with HIV. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, t-tests, and binary logistic regressions were used to assess associations between HIV status and a history of suicide attempt. The overall prevalence of a history of suicide attempt was 20.4%. No statistically significant relationship was found between a history of suicide attempt and being HIV positive, although people with HIV infection did evidence a higher prevalence of attempts than HIV-negative subjects (23.4% vs. 19.0%). Factors associated with having a history of suicide attempt within the overall sample included gender, current employment status, a lifetime history of drug use, and a lifetime history of sex work. Similar patterns were seen in the HIV-positive subsample. There was a nonsignificant trend toward increased risk for a post-diagnosis suicide attempt. These findings suggest that additional research on mental health risks among populations at risk for HIV in PR is needed.

More than foreskin: circumcision status, history of HIV/STI, and sexual risk in a clinic-based sample of men in Puerto Rico.

INTRODUCTION: Circumcision among adult men has been widely promoted as a strategy to reduce human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission risk. However, much of the available data derive from studies conducted in Africa, and there is as yet little research in the Caribbean region where sexual transmission is also a primary contributor to rapidly escalating HIV incidence. AIM: In an effort to fill the void of data from the Caribbean, the objective of this article is to compare history of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV diagnosis in relation to circumcision status in a clinic-based sample of men in Puerto Rico. METHODS: Data derive from an ongoing epidemiological study being conducted in a large STI/HIV prevention and treatment center in San Juan in which 660 men were randomly selected from the clinic's waiting room. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We assessed the association between circumcision status and self-reported history of STI/HIV infection using logistic regressions to explore whether circumcision conferred protective benefit. RESULTS: Almost a third (32.4%) of the men were circumcised (CM). Compared with uncircumcised (UC) men, CM have accumulated larger numbers of STI in their lifetime (CM = 73.4% vs. UC = 65.7%; P = 0.048), have higher rates of previous diagnosis of warts (CM = 18.8% vs. UC = 12.2%; P = 0.024), and were more likely to have HIV infection (CM = 43.0% vs. UC = 33.9%; P = 0.023). Results indicate that being CM predicted the likelihood of HIV infection (P value = 0.027). CONCLUSIONS: These analyses represent the first assessment of the association between circumcision and STI/HIV among men in the Caribbean. While preliminary, the data indicate that in and of itself, circumcision did not confer significant protective benefit against STI/HIV infection. Findings suggest the need to apply caution in the use of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy, particularly in settings where more effective combinations of interventions have yet to be fully implemented.

Awareness and knowledge of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection among high-risk men of Hispanic origin attending a sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinic.

BACKGROUND: Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most commonly diagnosed sexually transmitted infection (STIs) in men and women. Knowledge about HPV infection among men is limited. This study aims to determine correlates of adequate knowledge of HPV infection among men who attend an STI clinic in Puerto Rico. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 206 men was conducted at an STI clinic in San Juan, PR. Adequate knowledge was defined as a score of at least 70% of correct responses among those men who reported having ever heard of HPV. Variables that achieved statistical significance in the bivariate analysis (p<0.05) were included in the multivariate logistic regression model. RESULTS: Although 52.5% of men reported having heard of HPV infection before the survey, only 29.3% of this sub-group had an adequate knowledge of HPV. Most men did not know that HPV is a risk factor for anal (38.7%), penile (50.0%) and oral (72.6%) cancer. Factors associated with adequate knowledge of HPV in age-adjusted models were being men who have sex with men (MSM) (OR=2.6;95%CI=1.1-6.1), self-report of genital warts (OR=3.2;95%CI=1.3-7.9) and herpes (OR=7.4;95% CI=2.2-25.1). MSM was marginally associated with adequate knowledge (OR=2.3;95% CI=0.9-5.9) and self-report of herpes remained significantly associated (OR=5.0;95%CI=1.3-18.4) in multivariate logistic regression analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Awareness and knowledge of HPV was very low in this group of men. Interventions to increase knowledge and awareness in this group are necessary to promote preventive practices for HPV-related cancers in high-risk groups.

A preliminary profile of HIV risk in a clinic-based sample of MSM in Puerto Rico: implications for sexual health promotion interventions.

OBJECTIVE: Puerto Rico has one of the fastest growing HIV epidemics in the United States and--consistent with patterns observed in the Caribbean region as a whole--data on new infections shows the increased influence of sexual transmission in the local epidemic. Historically, both epidemiology and prevention activities have focused primarily on the islands' large heroin injector population. Although the available surveillance data indicate high rates of STIs and HIV among men who have sex with men (MSM), there has been little social and behavioral research among MSM and hence little empirical information to inform intervention development and planning. METHODS: Given the absence of data on MSM and their importance in the emerging epidemic on the island, this paper describes a sample of MSM patients in an STI/HIV treatment center in the San Juan metropolitan area between October 2009 and June 2011 (n = 120). Assessment of sexual risk includes measures of onset of oral, vaginal, and anal sex, as well as current sexual practices and partner characteristics. Self-reported history of STI diagnoses and current HIV status are described. RESULTS: Overall, MSM evidenced relatively large numbers of multiple, concurrent sexual partners, substantial age-discordance among partners, and limited condom use. Relative to HIV-negative MSM, HIV-positive MSM have had more cumulative male sexual partners in anal intercourse (p = 0.005). HIV-negative MSM were more likely to have had sex without a condom at last receptive anal intercourse (p = 0.012) as well as at last insertive anal sex intercourse (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Priorities for advancing HIV interventions for MSM are delineated, including the need for targeted sexual health interventions, mental health services, and improved strategies for engaging and retaining MSM in health services.

Accelerated transition to injection among male heroin initiates in Hanoi, Vietnam: implications for early harm reduction interventions.

This paper examines changes in the interval between first heroin smoking and onset of injection in a large, out-treatment sample of male heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam (n = 1,115). Mean age at initiation of heroin use (smoking) was 18.4 and mean age of onset of heroin injection was 20.9 years. Full multivariate analysis indicates that the interval between first heroin use (smoking) and first heroin injection has been significantly attenuated among more recent heroin initiates (P = 0.0043), suggesting that heroin users in Vietnam may be at increased risk for exposure to HIV relatively soon after onset of heroin use, highlighting the need for behavioral interventions that target heroin smokers. Critical intervention goals include delaying the onset of injection and improved education about safer drug sharing and drug injection practices.

Sexually transmitted infections clinics as strategic venues for targeting high risk populations for HIV research and sexual health interventions.

Puerto Rico has one of the highest incidence rates of HIV in the U.S. Concurrent with increases in sexually transmitted infections (STI), an increasing share of the new infections in PR are associated with sexual transmission. Much of the available research on sexual risk in PR derives from STI/HIV surveillance data. There is limited social and epidemiological research on sexual risk in PR, particularly in hidden and often hard-to-reach populations at high risk. Despite the absence of substantial resources that most epidemiological studies require, a research collaboration was initiated in 2007 between researchers in the School of Public Health at the University of Puerto Rico and the Centro Latinoamericano de Enfermedades de Transmisión Sexual (CLETS), one of the largest publicly funded centers for STI/HIV screening and treatment in the San Juan metropolitan area. Structured as a case study in the development of community-based research collaborations, this paper describes the early history and development of the project, including formative research, recruitment and training of students, and evolution in the study design that contributed to the current configuration of the ongoing "Core" study. Preliminary data are presented, highlighting data from a number of subpopulations that may contribute to our understanding of the role of behavioral risk in the STI/HIV epidemics in PR. More generally, the paper may guide the development of similar collaboration elsewhere in the Caribbean where HIV risk is increasing but where resources for research in high risk settings and groups are scarce.

Prevalence and incidence of HCV infection among Vietnam heroin users with recent onset of injection.

HCV infection continues to spread at an alarming rate among IDU populations. The available evidence suggests that HCV is acquired relatively quickly following onset of injection. However, there are few prospective studies of HCV acquisition, particularly among IDU populations in resource-poor settings. A sample of young male heroin injectors with recent onset of injection (<4 years) was recruited in Hanoi, Vietnam for a prospective assessment of the early course of injection (n = 179). Both behavioral and biological assessments (including detailed retrospective assessment of injection initiation) were conducted at baseline and repeated at 6-month intervals for a period of 16 months. Variables associated with HCV infection (p value < 0.05) in bivariate analyses were considered for inclusion in logistic regression models to identify risk factors independently associated with HCV infection. HCV incidence was calculated by using the incidence density approach and was expressed in terms of person-years of observation. The baseline of prevalence of HCV was 46%. HCV significantly increased in relation to time since first injection, from 30% in subjects with /=30 months injection risk (p value = 0.0005). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, increasing age, incarceration in a drug detention facility (OR = 2.54; 95%CI 1.05, 6.15), and time since first injection remained significantly associated with HCV infection. Use of injection as primary mode of administration (OR = 2.56; 95%CI 0.98, 6.69) achieved marginal significance. After 16 months of follow-up, the incidence rate of HCV was 23.35 per 100 person-years and the mean time between first injection and first positive HCV test was 1.2 years. HCV is acquired much more rapidly among new injector populations than previously recognized, demonstrating the need for early behavioral intervention among new heroin-user populations. Particularly critical are interventions that target new heroin user populations, including interventions that improve understanding of viral transmission dynamics, that promote alternative strategies for drug sharing, and that delay initiation of injection.

Circumstances, pedagogy and rationales for injection initiation among new drug injectors.

Injection drug use is especially risky for new injectors. To understand the social and environmental contexts in which risks occur, we interviewed individuals who had initiated injection within the past 3 years (n = 146, 69.2% male) about the circumstances and rationales for their initial injection events. Respondents typically initiated injection due to tolerance (49.3%) and/or for experimentation (61.1%). Most (86.2%) did not possess the technical skills required to self-inject, and relied on the assistance of someone older (58.5%). While low levels of syringe sharing (5.8%) were reported, a majority of respondents (60.5%) engaged in at least one type of behavioral risk. Female injectors were more likely than male injectors to rely on another individual (95.5 vs. 82.2%), often a sex partner (40.5 vs. 7.2%), for assistance. The diversity seen in early injection practices highlights the need for tailored prevention messages to reach this population prior to the onset of injection risk.

Nonmedical use of promethazine hydrochloride among heroin injectors in Vietnam: unrecognized risks and unintended consequences.

BACKGROUND: Surveillance studies have noted intravenous injection of promethazine hydrochloride (PHC) among populations that use heroin in south and southeast Asia. However, little is known about onset and initiation of PHC use and its relationship to habitual heroin use. METHODS: As part of a longitudinal study of heroin initiation, a sample of 179 new heroin users, aged 15-27 years, were interviewed between October 2005 and December 2006 in Hanoi, Vietnam. Cox proportional hazard regression analysis was used to characterize age at promethazine initiation and its association with relevant covariates. RESULTS: 76% reported lifetime use of PHC. Mean age of PHC initiation was 21.3 years, on average 6 months following onset of heroin injection. In multivariate analysis, lifetime use of diazepam [HR = 1.69 (1.17, 2.44); p-value = .01] and injecting heroin for more than 1.58 years [HR = 1.46 (1.04, 2.06); p-value = .03] were associated with PHC initiation. CONCLUSION: Intravenous injection of PHC is a relatively common practice among young injection heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam who use it on a situational basis to substitute for heroin (when heroin is not available or when heroin is too costly) or to augment the effects of an inadequate heroin dosing (delaying onset of heroin withdraw). Existing drug prevention strategies in Vietnam are focused primarily on heroin and most new heroin users initiate PHC use without prior knowledge of its high risk for serious vein damage. Future research is needed on the PHC use among heroin users, including long-term medical consequences of PHC exposure.

Intranasal transmission of hepatitis C virus: virological and clinical evidence.

Intranasal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) via contaminated drug-sniffing implements is a potential but unconfirmed source of viral infection. We demonstrate the virological plausibility of intranasal transmission by confirming that blood and HCV RNA are present in the nasal secretions and drug-sniffing implements of HCV-infected intranasal drug users recruited from a community health clinic in New York City.

Alternatives to the randomized controlled trial.

Public health researchers are addressing new research questions (e.g., effects of environmental tobacco smoke, Hurricane Katrina) for which the randomized controlled trial (RCT) may not be a feasible option. Drawing on the potential outcomes framework (Rubin Causal Model) and Campbellian perspectives, we consider alternative research designs that permit relatively strong causal inferences. In randomized encouragement designs, participants are randomly invited to participate in one of the treatment conditions, but are allowed to decide whether to receive treatment. In quantitative assignment designs, treatment is assigned on the basis of a quantitative measure (e.g., need, merit, risk). In observational studies, treatment assignment is unknown and presumed to be nonrandom. Major threats to the validity of each design and statistical strategies for mitigating those threats are presented.

HIV and other STIs in male sex workers: Findings from a sexual health promotion intervention in Vietnam.

Male sex workers (MSWs) in Vietnam are at high risk for acquisition and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), yet are extremely disengaged from the healthcare system. This contributes to large numbers of untreated or late-treated infections and increased secondary transmission. We enrolled 995 MSWs in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) in a Sexual Health Promotion intervention that included face-to-face delivery of seven content modules, a clinical examination and testing for HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea and Chlamydia. Onsite treatment was provided for STIs, and those who tested positive for HIV were referred to local treatment centers. While 64.6% of participants had never been to a health service and fewer than half (41.2%) had ever been tested for HIV, 67.1% returned for test results. This testing identified 109 (11.0%) participants who were HIV-positive and 312 (31.4%) who tested positive for at least one other STI. Substantive differences were seen in MSWs from different cities, with those from Hanoi more likely to have ever visited a health service (57.8% vs. 24.9%) and to have taken a prior HIV test (54.1% vs. 37.9%) than those in HCMC. Sexual health promotion is a promising approach to engaging MSWs in health services.

Novel heroin injection practices: implications for transmission of HIV and other bloodborne pathogens.

BACKGROUND: This paper describes injection risk in an out-of-treatment population of young heroin users in Hanoi, Vietnam, including use of a soft-tissue portal known as a "cay ma" (injection sac). METHODS: Data from a large cross-sectional survey (N=1270) are used to describe the prevalence of this practice and its association with disease. Additionally, data from an ethnographic substudy on injectors serve to elaborate injectors' rationales for this injection practice. RESULTS: This practice was common in this sample, appearing soon after initiation of habitual injection. Injectors report that this allows rapid and reliable access to a vein; strategic advantages in a dense urban environment where rapid injection, typically in public settings, is necessary to avoid discovery or arrest. Additionally, this practice is believed to mitigate risk for vein damage from co-morbid promethazine hydrochloride injection. CONCLUSIONS: This practice may draw lymphocytes to injection sites, thereby increasing risk for transmission of bloodborne pathogens. Structural and behavioral interventions are needed for young heroin users in Vietnam.

First injection of ketamine among young injection drug users (IDUs) in three U.S. cities.

Ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic, has emerged as an increasingly common drug among subgroups of young injection drug users (IDUs) in cities across the United States. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 213 young IDUs aged 16-28 years recruited in New York, New Orleans, and Los Angeles between 2004 and 2006. While some initiated injection drug use with ketamine, the drug was more frequently injected by IDUs with extensive polydrug using histories. IDUs initiating with ketamine commonly self-injected via an intramuscular mode of administration. The injection group provided crucial knowledge and material resources that enabled the injection event to occur, including ketamine, syringes, and injection skills. Injection paraphernalia was commonly shared during the first injection of ketamine, particularly vials of pharmaceutically-packaged liquid ketamine. Injection events infrequently occurred in a rave or club and more typically in a private home, which challenges ketamine's designation as a 'club' drug. The first injection of ketamine was a noteworthy event since it introduced a novel drug or new mode of administration to be further explored by some, or exposed others to a drug to be avoided in the future. Risk reduction messages directed towards young IDUs should be expanded to include ketamine.