Feline Leukemia Virus Frequently Spills Over from Domestic Cats to North American Pumas.

Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a gammaretrovirus with horizontally transmitted and endogenous forms. Domestic cats are the primary reservoir species, but FeLV outbreaks in endangered Florida panthers and Iberian lynxes have resulted in mortalities. To assess prevalence and interspecific/intraspecific transmission, we conducted an extensive survey and phylogenetic analysis of FeLV infection in free-ranging pumas (n = 641) and bobcats (n = 212) and shelter domestic cats (n = 304). Samples were collected from coincident habitats across the United States between 1985 and 2018. FeLV infection was detected in 3.12% of the puma samples, 0.47% of the bobcat samples, and 6.25% of the domestic cat samples analyzed. Puma prevalence varied by location, with Florida having the highest rate of infection. FeLV env sequences revealed variation among isolates, and we identified two distinct clades. Both progressive and regressive infections were identified in cats and pumas. Based on the time and location of sampling and phylogenetic analysis, we inferred 3 spillover events between domestic cats and pumas; 3 puma-to-puma transmissions in Florida were inferred. An additional 14 infections in pumas likely represented spillover events following contact with reservoir host domestic cat populations. Our data provide evidence that FeLV transmission from domestic cats to pumas occurs widely across the United States, and puma-to-puma transmission may occur in genetically and geographically constrained populations. IMPORTANCE Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that primarily affects domestic cats. Close interactions with domestic cats, including predation, can lead to the interspecific transmission of the virus to pumas, bobcats, or other feline species. Some infected individuals develop progressive infections, which are associated with clinical signs of disease and can result in mortality. Therefore, outbreaks of FeLV in wildlife, including the North American puma and the endangered Florida panther, are of high conservation concern. This work provides a greater understanding of the dynamics of the transmission of FeLV between domestic cats and wild felids and presents evidence of multiple spillover events and infections in all sampled populations. These findings highlight the concern for pathogen spillover from domestic animals to wildlife but also identify an opportunity to understand viral evolution following cross-species transmissions more broadly.

Early detection of wildlife morbidity and mortality through an event-based surveillance system.

The ability to rapidly detect and respond to wildlife morbidity and mortality events is critical for reducing threats to wildlife populations. Surveillance systems that use pre-diagnostic clinical data can contribute to the early detection of wildlife morbidities caused by a multitude of threats, including disease and anthropogenic disturbances. Here, we demonstrate proof of concept for use of a wildlife disease surveillance system, the 'Wildlife Morbidity and Mortality Event Alert System', that integrates pre-diagnostic clinical data in near real-time from a network of wildlife rehabilitation organizations, for early and enhanced detection of unusual wildlife morbidity and mortality events. The system classifies clinical pre-diagnostic data into relevant clinical classifications based on a natural language processing algorithm, generating alerts when more than the expected number of cases is recorded across the rehabilitation network. We demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the system in alerting to events associated with both common and emerging diseases. Tapping into this readily available unconventional general surveillance data stream offers added value to existing wildlife disease surveillance programmes through a relatively efficient, low-cost strategy for the early detection of threats.

PREVALENCE, TREATMENT, AND SURVIVAL OF BURNED WILDLIFE PRESENTING TO REHABILITATION FACILITIES FROM 2015 TO 2018.

In recent decades, wildfires have increased in frequency and geographic scale across the globe. The human health implications and ecological succession after wildfires are well documented and studied, but there is a lack of empirical research about the direct effects of wildfires on wildlife. Recent wildfires have demonstrated the need to better understand animal burn injuries and innovations in veterinary burn treatment. An online survey was distributed to wildlife rehabilitation facilities internationally to collect baseline information about the number and type of burned wildlife cases admitted, treatments used, and survivorship of wildlife affected by wildfires. Approximately 80% (n = 49) of all respondents (n = 61) reported admitting cases of burned wildlife from 2015 to 2018. Respondents included facilities from six different countries and roughly 43% of facilities reported having a veterinarian on staff. Electrical burns were most commonly reported with 89% of respondents stating that they had seen electrical burns while 38% of respondents reported seeing wildfire-source thermal burns in wildlife patients. Respondents were asked about their frequency of use of different treatment methods. Bandages, colloid fluids, and opioids were used at significantly higher rates at facilities with veterinarians compared with facilities that did not report having a veterinarian; however, survival of burned wildlife patients did not significantly differ based on the factor of having a veterinarian on staff. Long-term and short-term complications were commonly reported for wildlife burn patients; 88% of facilities reported scarring, 81% reported alopecia, and 61% reported sepsis. Burned animals admitted to facilities were reported to have equal odds of dying and surviving. Burn care recommendations have changed considerably in recent decades. This study provided a unique opportunity to compare contemporary recommendations in human medicine with current methods used in wildlife rehabilitation facilities to identify potential areas of further investigation and improvement for wildlife medicine.

Seasonal movements and habitat use of African buffalo in Ruaha National Park, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Assessing wildlife movements and habitat use is important for species conservation and management and can be informative for understanding population dynamics. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) population of Ruaha National Park, Tanzania has been declining, and little was known about the movement, habitat selection, and space use of the population, which is important for understanding possible reasons behind the decline. A total of 12 African buffalo cows from four different herds were collared with satellite transmitters. Movements were assessed over 2 years from 11 animals. RESULTS: The space use of the individual collared buffaloes as an approximation of the 95% home range size estimated using Brownian bridge models, ranged from 73 to 601 km2. The estimated home ranges were larger in the wet season than in the dry season. With the exception of one buffalo all collared animals completed a wet season migration of varying distances. A consistent pattern of seasonal movement was observed with one herd, whereas the other herds did not behave the same way in the two wet seasons that they were tracked. Herd splitting and herd switching occurred on multiple occasions. Buffaloes strongly associated with habitats near the Great Ruaha River in the dry season and had little association to permanent water sources in the wet season. Daily movements averaged 4.6 km (standard deviation, SD = 2.6 km), with the longest distances traveled during November (mean 6.9 km, SD = 3.6 km) at the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season. The shortest daily distances traveled occurred in the wet season in April-June (mean 3.6 km, SD = 1.6-1.8 km). CONCLUSION: The Great Ruaha River has experienced significant drying in the last decades due to water diversions upstream, which likely has reduced the suitable range for buffaloes. The loss of dry season habitat due to water scarcity has likely contributed to the population decline of the Ruaha buffaloes.

USE OF FLUMETHRIN-IMPREGNATED COLLARS TO MANAGE AN EPIDEMIC OF SARCOPTIC MANGE IN AN URBAN POPULATION OF ENDANGERED SAN JOAQUIN KIT FOXES (VULPES MACROTIS MUTICA).

Sarcoptic mange epidemics can have long-lasting impacts on susceptible wildlife populations, potentially contributing to local population declines and extirpation. Since 2013, there have been 460 reported cases of sarcoptic mange in an urban population of endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica) in Bakersfield, CA, with many of them resulting in fatality. As part of a multifaceted response to mitigate mange-caused mortalities and reduce this conservation threat, a 2-yr randomized field trial was conducted to assess the efficacy of long-acting flumethrin collars against sarcoptic mange in kit foxes. Thirty-five kit foxes living in a high-density population on a college campus were captured, examined, administered selamectin, and each fox randomly assigned to either receive a flumethrin collar placed within a VHF radio collar or a VHF radio collar without flumethrin. The survival and mange-infestation status of study animals was monitored via radio telemetry, remote cameras, and periodic recapture examinations and compared among treated and control kit foxes using a Cox proportional hazards model. The average time to onset of mange for treated kit foxes (176 days) was similar to controls (171 days) and treatment with flumethrin did not significantly reduce mange risk for all kit foxes. Kit foxes that had a mild mange infestation at the beginning of the study were four times more likely to develop mange again, regardless of flumethrin treatment, compared with kit foxes that had no signs at initial recruitment. This study demonstrates an approach to evaluating population-level protection and contributes to the limited literature on efficacy, safety, and practicality of acaricides in free-ranging wildlife.

DISEASE AND PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF AN ENDANGERED RODENT, MICROTUS CALIFORNICUS SCIRPENSIS, IN A CAPTIVE-REARING FACILITY AND IN THE WILD.

Causes of morbidity and mortality and a survey of infectious disease agents were collated from wild and colony-raised endangered Amargosa voles (Microtus californicus scirpensis). Six voles from the wild and 295 voles in the captive-breeding colony were included in the study upon identification of an infectious agent during screening, identification of clinical signs of disease, or finding a pathological condition or infectious agent on necropsy. Findings included 28 significant or incidental pathological conditions of seven organ systems and 19 parasitic, viral, bacterial, or fungal agents. Several voles captured in the wild had fungal osteomyelitis of the tail that disseminated systemically in a vole brought from the wild to the colony and may have been caused by a Penicillium sp. Three voles reintroduced from the colony to the wild experienced inanition and subsequent severe hepatic and moderate renal tubular lipidosis. The most common significant pathological conditions in colony-reared voles were chronic interstitial nephritis with proteinosis; cardiomyopathy; trichobezoars that, in intestines or cecocolic junctions, sometimes induced local rupture or infarction with peritonitis; multifocal gastrointestinal ulceration and colibacillosis; acute renal tubular necrosis or nephritis; sepsis; hepatic and renal lipidosis; molar apical elongation sometimes progressing to invasion of the calvarium; and mammary tumors. Uncommon diagnoses included intervertebral disc disease; microvascular dysplasia; and multifocal bacterial abscessation. Common or clinically important infectious agents included Demodex sp. mites in hair follicles, Demodex sp. in esophageal mucosa, and an outbreak of tropical rat mites thought to have been introduced via the straw bedding; gastrointestinal Helicobacter sp.; attaching and effacing Escherichia coli; and Citrobacter braakii, a possible zoonotic bacterium. This survey of species-specific diseases and pathogens was possible because the established health surveillance program that is part of the species recovery plan allowed for monitoring of voles throughout the duration of their natural life spans in captivity.

Successful care and propagation of the endangered amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) in captivity.

The Amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) is a highlyendangered rodent endemic to a small stretch of the California portion of the Amargosa River basin in Inyo County's Mojave Desert. Although the Amargosa vole has survived in this naturally fragmented ecosystem for thousands of years, recent habitat degradation due to land development, water drainage, and marsh exploitation has further isolated the species and reduced its available habitat. As part of a conservation effort to preserve the species, a captive breeding population was established in 2014 to serve as an insurance colony and as a source of individuals to release into the wild as restored habitat becomes available. As this is the only captive colony for this species, there is little published information about appropriate care and husbandry for the Amargosa vole. Here we provide information about behavior, diet, reproduction, drug sensitivities, and diseases that affect successful captive care. We also provide recommendations for housing and disease management to preserve natural behaviors and defenses in captive-born animals.

PHOTORECEPTOR DEGENERATION IN A MOUNTAIN LION CUB (PUMA CONCOLOR).

An orphaned 4-mo-old female mountain lion cub ( Puma concolor ) was captured along the coastline in Montaña de Oro State Park in Los Osos, California, USA. Following suspicion that the cub was visually impaired, ophthalmic examination revealed diffuse bilateral retinal atrophy. Due to a poor prognosis, humane euthanasia was elected. Necropsy and histopathological findings were consistent with photoreceptor degeneration. Based on the cub's signalment, history, and histopathology, a genetic or nutritional etiology was suspected, with the former etiology more strongly supported. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of photoreceptor degeneration in a wild felid and should be considered in cases of blindness.

Spatial predictors of bovine tuberculosis infection and Brucella spp. exposure in pastoralist and agropastoralist livestock herds in the Ruaha ecosystem of Tanzania.

While many studies investigate animal-related risk factors for disease, few have considered environmental or spatial risk factors in the dynamics of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and brucellosis. In the Ruaha ecosystem of Tanzania, we investigated the role of household location as a predictor for infection with Mycobacterium bovis and exposure to Brucella in pastoralist and agropastoralist cattle herds in a typical African wildlife-livestock-human interface. ArcGIS was utilized to calculate Euclidian distances between households and the nearest river, village center, protected area, and other infected households, followed by multivariate logistic regression to assess the association between risk factors and herd-level bTB and Brucella outcomes. Global and local spatial clustering of bTB-infected and Brucella-exposed herds was explored using the Cuzick-Edward's test and SaTScan spatial scan statistics. Households located farther from rivers and closer to village centers and herds belonging to agropastoralists were more likely to have bTB-positive cattle. Risk of Brucella exposure increased with proximity to protected areas. One spatial cluster of households with Brucella spp. seropositive cattle was identified. Spatial factors may be useful for assessing disease risk and for formulating intervention and control strategies for households that manage cattle in ecosystems characterized by seasonally limited resources and intense wildlife-livestock interfaces.

Integrating the management of Ruaha landscape of Tanzania with local needs and preferences.

Sustainable management of landscapes with multiple competing demands such as the Ruaha Landscape is complex due to the diverse preferences and needs of stakeholder groups involved. This study uses conjoint analysis to assess the preferences of representatives from three stakeholder groups-local communities, district government officials, and non-governmental organizations-toward potential solutions of conservation and development tradeoffs facing local communities in the Ruaha Landscape of Tanzania. Results demonstrate that there is little consensus among stakeholders about the best development strategies for the Ruaha region. This analysis suggests a need for incorporating issues deemed important by these various groups into a development strategy that aims to promote conservation of the Ruaha Landscape and improve the livelihood of local communities.

Spatio-temporal and transmission dynamics of sarcoptic mange in an endangered New World kit fox.

Sarcoptic mange poses a serious conservation threat to endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica). After first appearing in Bakersfield, California in spring 2013, mange reduced the kit fox population approximately 50% until the epidemic ended with minimally detectable endemic cases after 2020. Mange is lethal and thus, with such a high force of infection and lack of immunity, it remains unclear why the epidemic did not burn itself out rapidly and how it persisted so long. Here we explored spatio-temporal patterns of the epidemic, analyzed historical movement data, and created a compartment metapopulation model (named "metaseir") to evaluate whether movement of foxes among patches and spatial heterogeneity would reproduce the eight years epidemic with 50% population reduction observed in Bakersfield. Our main findings from metaseir were that: 1) a simple metapopulation model can capture the Bakersfield-like disease epidemic dynamics even when there is no environmental reservoir or external spillover host, 2) the most impactful parameter on persistence and magnitude of the epidemic is the projection, ß/αß (transmission over decay rate of transmission over space), 3) heterogeneity in patch carrying capacities changes the critical value of the projection needed to achieve an epidemic but makes little difference to epidemic persistence time, and 4) the epidemic is relatively insensitive to birth rates and density vs. frequency-dependent transmission. Our model can help guide management and assessment of metapopulation viability of this vulpid subspecies, while the exploratory data analysis and model will also be valuable to understand mange in other, particularly den-occupying, species.

Cutaneous Histiocytic Sarcoma with Giant Cells in a Free-ranging Brush Rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani).

A cutaneous mass in a free-ranging brush rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani) was composed of neoplastic spindle to polygonal cells with multinucleated giant cells, which were positive for CD204 and negative for smooth muscle actin and desmin. Histiocytic sarcoma with giant cells was diagnosed; this neoplasm has not been reported previously in free-ranging lagomorphs.

MOVEMENTS BY SAN JOAQUIN KIT FOXES (VULPES MACROTIS MUTICA) BETWEEN URBAN AND NONURBAN HABITATS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPOPULATION DISEASE TRANSFER.

Sarcoptic mange epidemics erupted in two of the remaining populations of endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica). Both populations are in urban habitats in the cities of Bakersfield and Taft, California, USA. The risk of disease spread from the two urban populations to nearby nonurban populations, and then throughout the species range, is of considerable conservation concern. To date, mange has not been detected in any nonurban populations despite considerable surveillance effort. The reasons for the lack of detections of mange among nonurban foxes are unknown. We monitored urban kit fox movements using geographic positioning system (GPS) collars to test the hypothesis that urban foxes were not venturing into nonurban habitats. Of 24 foxes monitored December 2018 to November 2019, 19 (79%) made excursions from urban into nonurban habitats from 1-124 times. The mean number of excursions per 30 d was 5.5 (range 0.1-13.9 d). The mean proportion of locations in nonurban habitats was 29.0% (range 0.6-99.7%). The mean maximum distance that foxes traveled into nonurban areas from the urban-nonurban interface was 1.1 km (range 0.1-2.9 km). Mean number of excursions, proportion of nonurban locations, and maximum distance into nonurban habitats were similar between Bakersfield and Taft, females and males, and adults and juveniles. At least eight foxes apparently used dens in nonurban habitats; shared use of dens may be an important mode of mange mite transmission between conspecifics. Two of the collared foxes died of mange during the study and two others had mange when captured at the end of the study. Three of these four foxes had made excursions into nonurban habitats. These results confirm a significant potential for mange to spread from urban to nonurban kit fox populations. We recommend continued surveillance in nonurban populations and continued treatment efforts in the affected urban populations.

Vector-Borne Disease in Wild Mammals Impacted by Urban Expansion and Climate Change.

Ecologies of zoonotic vector-borne diseases may shift with climate and land use change. As many urban-adapted mammals can host ectoparasites and pathogens of human and animal health concern, our goal was to compare patterns of arthropod-borne disease among medium-sized mammals across gradients of rural to urban landscapes in multiple regions of California. DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found in 1-5% of raccoons, coyotes, and San Joaquin kit foxes; Borrelia burgdorferi in one coyote, rickettsiae in two desert kit foxes, and Yersinia pestis in two coyotes. There was serological evidence of rickettsiae in 14-37% of coyotes, Virginia opossums, and foxes; and A. phagocytophilum in 6-40% of coyotes, raccoons, Virginia opossums, and foxes. Of six flea species, one Ctenocephalides felis from a raccoon was positive for Y. pestis, and Ct. felis and Pulex simulans fleas tested positive for Rickettsia felis and R. senegalensis. A Dermacentor similis tick off a San Joaquin kit fox was PCR-positive for A. phagocytophilum. There were three statistically significant risk factors: risk of A. phagocytophilum PCR-positivity was threefold greater in fall vs the other three seasons; hosts adjacent to urban areas had sevenfold increased A. phagocytophilum seropositivity compared with urban and rural areas; and there was a significant spatial cluster of rickettsiae within greater Los Angeles. Animals in areas where urban and rural habitats interconnect can serve as sentinels during times of change in disease risk.

Host species and environment drivers of ectoparasite community of rodents in a Mojave Desert wetlands.

Drivers of patterns of ectoparasitism in rodents in patchy Mojave Desert wetlands were investigated. A total of 1,571 ectoparasites in Mesostigmata, Trombidiformes, Siphonaptera and Ixodida were collected from 341 rodents (Microtus californicus scirpensis, Mus musculus, Reithrodontomys megalotis, Peromyscus eremicus, and Neotoma lepida) at eleven marshes. Trombiculids accounted for 82.5% of mites, followed by the mesostigmatid Ornithonyssus bacoti (17.5%), with chiggers predominating on voles and harvest mice. There were at least three genera of chiggers (Eutrombicula alfreddugesi, Euschoengastia sp. novel, and Blankaartia sp. novel). Fleas included Orchopeas leucopus (90.3% of all fleas) and O. sexdentatus (9.7%), and ticks were the novel endemic Ixodes mojavensis (82.1% of ticks) and Dermacentor similis (17.9%). On all hosts and at all marshes, coverage-based rarefaction sampling was over 96%, indicating coverage sufficient for analysis. Dissimilarities in ectoparasite community structure were driven mainly by chiggers, I. mojavensis and O. leucopus. Northern marshes were dominated by chiggers; central marshes by I. mojavensis; and southern marshes by O. leucopus. Primary determinants of ectoparasite community structure were host species, patch size, and parasite interspecific interactions. Host species richness and environmental factors such as patch distance and water and plant availability were not significantly associated with patterns of ectoparasitism. There were nine (60%) significant negative pairwise associations between ectoparasite taxa and no significant positive relationships. Ixodes mojavensis had the highest number of negative associations (with five other species), followed by chiggers and O. bacoti with two negative associations each. The study area is among the most arid in North America and supports numerous rare and endemic species in increasingly isolated wetland habitat patches; knowledge of ectoparasite ecology in this region identifies potential ectoparasite vectors, and provides information needed to design and implement programs to manage vector-borne diseases for purposes of wildlife conservation.

Early circulation of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus type 2 in domestic and wild lagomorphs in southern California, USA (2020-2021).

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus type 2 (RHDV2) causes a severe systemic disease with hepatic necrosis. Differently from classic RHDV, which affects only European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), RHDV2 can affect many leporid species, including hares (Lepus spp.) and cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.). RHDV2 emerged in Europe in 2010 and spread worldwide. During the last 5 years, there have been multiple outbreaks in North America since the first known event in 2016 in Quebec, Canada, including several detections in British Columbia, Canada, between 2018 and 2019, Washington State and Ohio, USA, in 2018 and 2019, and New York, USA, in 2020. However, the most widespread outbreak commenced in March 2020 in the southwestern USA and Mexico. In California, RHDV2 spread widely across several southern counties between 2020 and 2021, and the aim of this study was to report and characterize these early events of viral incursion and circulation within the state. Domestic and wild lagomorphs (n = 81) collected between August 2020 and February 2021 in California with a suspicion of RHDV2 infection were tested by reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR on the liver, and histology and immunohistochemistry for pan-lagovirus were performed on liver sections. In addition, whole genome sequencing from 12 cases was performed. During this period, 33/81 lagomorphs including 24/59 domestic rabbits (O. cuniculus), 3/16 desert cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus audubonii), and 6/6 black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) tested positive. All RHDV2-positive animals had hepatic necrosis typical of pathogenic lagovirus infection, and the antigen was detected in sections from individuals of the three species. The 12 California sequences were closely related (98.9%-99.95%) to each other, and also very similar (99.0%-99.4%) to sequences obtained in other southwestern states during the 2020-2021 outbreak; however, they were less similar to strains obtained in New York in 2020 (96.7%-96.9%) and Quebec in 2016 (92.4%-92.6%), suggesting that those events could be related to different viral incursions. The California sequences were more similar (98.6%-98.7%) to a strain collected in British Columbia in 2018, which suggests that that event could have been related to the 2020 outbreak in the southwestern USA.

PARASITES OF AN ENDANGERED HARVEST MOUSE (REITHRODONTOMYS RAVIVENTRIS HALICOETES) IN A NORTHERN CALIFORNIA MARSH.

Disease may limit recovery of endangered species. We surveyed parasites in the federally endangered salt marsh harvest mouse (SMHM; Reithrodontomys raviventris halicoetes) and sympatric rodents in Suisun Marsh (Solano County, California, USA) from April 2018 through March 2019. We investigated individual SMHM risk factors (age, sex, reproductive status, and body condition) for infection and relationships among the estimated parasite prevalence and season and habitat management (natural tidal habitats versus diked, nontidal habitats). We captured 625 individual rodents, including 439 SMHM, and tested these for infection with Bartonella spp., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Francisella tularensis, Leptospira spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., and Toxoplasma gondii by PCR. Over one-third (34.6%, confidence interval [CI], 30.2-39.3%) of SMHM tested positive for at least one parasite. Four percent (CI, 2.8-6.3%) of SMHM were infected with F. tularensis holarctica, a virulent bacterium that causes mortality in rodents shortly after infection. Additionally, we detected three species of Bartonella (B. henselae, B. rochalimae, B. vinsonii arupensis), Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Ballum, Cryptosporidium sp. (deer mouse [Peromyscus maniculatus] genotype), Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis, and an unidentified Borrelia sp. The only parasite that was associated with habitat management was Bartonella spp., which was more prevalent in diked than tidal areas. Male SMHM were more likely to be parasitized than females, and individuals in modestly poor body condition were most likely to be infected with Bartonella spp. The estimated sample prevalence of multiple parasites varied by season and by host species. This is the first major parasite assessment in a long-endangered species, and these results will assist managers to incorporate parasitic disease into recovery planning and provide a critical baseline for future investigations, including how climatically induced habitat and species composition changes could alter disease dynamics.

Generalized dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton equinum in 8 juvenile black bears in California.

From 2014-2019, 8 juvenile black bears (Ursus americanus) from different geographic regions were presented to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife because of emaciation, alopecia, and exfoliative dermatitis that resulted in death or euthanasia. Autopsy and histopathology revealed that all 8 bears had generalized hyperkeratotic dermatitis, folliculitis, and furunculosis. Skin structures were heavily colonized by fungal hyphae and arthrospores; fungal cultures of skin from 7 bears yielded Trichophyton equinum, a zoophilic dermatophyte reported only rarely in non-equid species. Additional skin conditions included mites (5), ticks (2), and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp. infections (2). No other causes of morbidity or mortality were identified. Molecular comparisons performed at the University of Texas Fungal Reference Laboratory determined that all isolates produced identical banding patterns, potentially representing a clonal population. Dermatophytosis is commonly localized and limited to the stratum corneum of the epidermis and hair follicles. Generalized disease with dermal involvement is rare in immunocompetent individuals; illness, malnutrition, age, or immunosuppression may increase susceptibility. Underlying causes for the severe disease impact in these bears were not evident after physical or postmortem examination. The mechanism by which bears from different geographic locations had severe, T. equinum-associated dermatophytosis from a potentially clonal dermatophyte could not be explained and warrants further investigation.

Novel amdovirus in gray foxes.

We used viral metagenomics to identify a novel parvovirus in tissues of a gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Nearly full genome characterization and phylogenetic analyses showed this parvovirus (provisionally named gray fox amdovirus) to be distantly related to Aleutian mink disease virus, representing the second viral species in the Amdovirus genus.

Investigating and managing the rapid emergence of white-nose syndrome, a novel, fatal, infectious disease of hibernating bats.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a fatal disease of bats that hibernate. The etiologic agent of WNS is the fungus Geomyces destructans, which infects the skin and wing membranes. Over 1 million bats in six species in eastern North America have died from WNS since 2006, and as a result several species of bats may become endangered or extinct. Information is lacking on the pathogenesis of G. destructans and WNS, WNS transmission and maintenance, individual and site factors that contribute to the probability of an outbreak of WNS, and spatial dynamics of WNS spread in North America. We considered how descriptive and analytical epidemiology could be used to fill these information gaps, including a four-step (modified) outbreak investigation, application of a set of criteria (Hill's) for assessing causation, compartment models of disease dynamics, and spatial modeling. We cataloged and critiqued adaptive-management options that have been either previously proposed for WNS or were helpful in addressing other emerging diseases of wild animals. These include an ongoing program of prospective surveillance of bats and hibernacula for WNS, treatment of individual bats, increasing population resistance to WNS (through vaccines, immunomodulators, or other methods), improving probability of survival from starvation and dehydration associated with WNS, modifying hibernacula environments to eliminate G. destructans, culling individuals or populations, controlling anthropogenic spread of WNS, conserving genetic diversity of bats, and educating the public about bats and bat conservation issues associated with WNS.