How do early affiliative memories explain body image shame? A 12-month longitudinal study in adolescent girls.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explain adolescent girls' body image shame across a 12- month longitudinal design, and its relationship with early parental memories of warmth and safeness and fear of receiving compassion from others. DESIGN AND METHODS: Participants included 231 adolescent girls, who completed self-report measures at three different periods: baseline (W1), 6-month follow-up (W2), and 12-month follow-up (W3). Descriptive and correlational analyses were performed, and differences between participants at the different waves were explored through repeated measures ANOVA. A cross-lagged panel model tested the mediational effect of fears of receiving compassion on the association between early affiliative memories (W1) and body image shame (W3). RESULTS: ANOVA results found significant differences throughout time in memories of warmth and safeness (tending to diminish) and in body image shame (tending to rise). Correlation analysis revealed that all variables were significantly associated in the expected directions, across the three waves. Finally, path analysis revealed that early affiliative parental memories (in W1) had a direct effect on body image shame (in W3), through the fear of receiving compassion from others (in W2), accounting for 85% of body image shame's variance (W3). CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that the lack of early affiliative memories often leads to the development of defensive mechanisms such as fears of receiving compassion from others which in turn can foster isolation and distant relationships, enhancing feelings of inferiority and inadequacy, which in female adolescents can emerge centered on body image - body image shame. This study further highlights the importance of prevention and intervention strategies based on compassion to specifically target fears of receiving compassion from others, in adolescent girls dealing with feelings of inferiority and shame regarding their body.

When body dysmorphia symptomatology meets disordered eating: The role of shame and self-criticism.

Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a serious psychiatric condition that has long been identified as an important risk factor for the development of eating-related difficulties. However, little is known about the mechanisms that might explain this association. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the link between body dysmorphic symptomatology and disordered eating, and test whether this relationship is mediated by higher levels of shame and self-criticism. This cross-sectional study included 291 women from the community, aged between 18 and 62 years old, who completed self-report measures. Path analysis revealed that BDD symptomatology has not only a direct effect on disordered eating, but also an indirect effect, mediated by shame and self-criticism. The path model revealed a very good fit, accounting for 38% and 31% of internal and external shames' variances, respectively, for 69% of self-criticism variance, and 58% of the variance of disordered eating. These findings seem to suggest that in women with BDD symptomatology, disordered eating may emerge as a compensatory strategy to cope with general feelings of inferiority/defectiveness, particularly in the presence of shame experiences and self-critical attitudes/behaviours. Moreover, this study emphasizes the importance to invest in innovative treatment and prevention approaches for BDD that specifically target shame and self-criticism, such as compassion-based therapies. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV, cross-sectional study.

Exploring eating and exercise-related indicators during COVID-19 quarantine in Portugal: concerns and routine changes in women with different BMI.

PURPOSE: The present study aimed to understand how quarantine associated with COVID-19 was experienced by women from different BMI groups (underweight, normal weight, pre-obesity, and obesity), by exploring the changes introduced in eating and exercise routines and the differences between BMI groups regarding shape concern, weight concern, and binge eating behaviours reported during this time. METHODS: This study comprised 580 women aged between 18 and 65 years old, who completed self-report measures, during the mandatory confinement in Portugal due to COVID-19. The total sample was divided into four groups, according to their BMI. RESULTS: Results revealed that overall, there were no significant differences between the groups regarding the eating and exercise routine changes introduced during quarantine. However, significant differences between the four groups were found in the reported body and eating-related difficulties (shape concern, weight concern, and binge eating behaviours), with the pre-obesity and obesity groups presenting significant higher levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that, even though the changes introduced to the eating and exercise routine are independent of BMI, the pre-obesity and obesity group represent a major vulnerability group for the development of eating disorders. We hope this study allows professionals to understand the need to develop different guidelines and strategies for the pre-obesity and obesity female population during the deconfinement period. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V-Descriptive study.

The powerful effect of body image inflexibility on the explanation of eating psychopathology severity.

PURPOSE: Feelings of shame and social comparison focused on physical appearance have been identified as important risk factors for the engagement in disordered eating behaviours. Further, recent studies have emphasized the role of body-image psychological (in)flexibility in the association between several risk factors and eating psychopathology. The current study intended to explore, in two different path models, the effects of external shame, physical appearance-related social comparison, and body image inflexibility on the explanation of eating psychopathology severity. METHODS: This study follows a cross-sectional design and was conducted in a sample of 776 emerging-adult women, aged between 18 and 28, who completed an online battery of self-report measures. Path analyses were conducted using a structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Model 1's results showed that external shame and unfavourable social comparison based on physical appearance directly accounts for 26% of the variance in disordered eating. In turn, when body image inflexibility is introduced as a mediator in the relationship presented in Model 1, variance in disordered eating increases to 60% (Model 2). These results suggest that both external shame and unfavourable physical appearance-related social comparison have an impact on disordered eating behaviours. However, when body image inflexibility is introduced, the mentioned relationships change and reveal that psychological inflexibility is a significant mediator of these associations. CONCLUSION: These findings seem to demonstrate that body image inflexibility is a key process for the engagement in disordered eating, so the promotion of psychological flexibility focused on one's body is crucial for the prevention and treatment of disordered eating behaviours and attitudes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV: Cross-sectional study.

A consensus document on definition and diagnostic criteria for orthorexia nervosa.

PURPOSE: Since the term orthorexia nervosa (ON) was coined from the Greek (ὀρθός, right and ὄρεξις, appetite) in 1997 to describe an obsession with "correct" eating, it has been used worldwide without a consistent definition. Although multiple authors have proposed diagnostic criteria, and many theoretical papers have been published, no consensus definition of ON exists, empirical primary evidence is limited, and ON is not a standardized diagnosis. These gaps prevent research to identify risk and protective factors, pathophysiology, functional consequences, and evidence-based therapeutic treatments. The aims of the current study are to categorize the common observations and presentations of ON pathology among experts in the eating disorder field, propose tentative diagnostic criteria, and consider which DSM chapter and category would be most appropriate for ON should it be included. METHODS: 47 eating disorder researchers and multidisciplinary treatment specialists from 14 different countries across four continents completed a three-phase modified Delphi process, with 75% agreement determined as the threshold for a statement to be included in the final consensus document. In phase I, participants were asked via online survey to agree or disagree with 67 statements about ON in four categories: A-Definition, Clinical Aspects, Duration; B-Consequences; C-Onset; D-Exclusion Criteria, and comment on their rationale. Responses were used to modify the statements which were then provided to the same participants for phase II, a second round of feedback, again in online survey form. Responses to phase II were used to modify and improve the statements for phase III, in which statements that met the predetermined 75% of agreement threshold were provided for review and commentary by all participants. RESULTS: 27 statements met or exceeded the consensus threshold and were compiled into proposed diagnostic criteria for ON. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time a standardized definition of ON has been developed from a worldwide, multidisciplinary cohort of experts. It represents a summary of observations, clinical expertise, and research findings from a wide base of knowledge. It may be used as a base for diagnosis, treatment protocols, and further research to answer the open questions that remain, particularly the functional consequences of ON and how it might be prevented or identified and intervened upon in its early stages. Although the participants encompass many countries and disciplines, further research will be needed to determine if these diagnostic criteria are applicable to the experience of ON in geographic areas not represented in the current expert panel. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V: opinions of expert committees.

Making the leap from healthy to disordered eating: the role of intuitive and inflexible eating attitudes in orthorexic behaviours among women.

PURPOSE: Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) has been a research focus in recent years. Despite the lack of consensus on its definition and classification as a psychiatric disorder, research has shown that ON is linked to certain behaviours (orthorexic behaviours, e.g.: obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior, guilt and self-punishment, restriction), associated with disordered eating. However, very little is known about this relationship. The aim of this study was to explore the eating-related processes inherent to the relationship between orthorexic behaviours and disordered eating, and understand if it is through the adoption of a more inflexible and less intuitive eating approach, that an interest in healthy eating develops into a pathological one, while controlling the effect of age and BMI. Additionally, this relationship was explored for two different groups: Omnivores and Non-omnivores. METHODS: Four hundred fifty-one women (281 Omnivores and 170 Non-omnivores) from the Portuguese population participated in this study, by answering a set of self-report measures. RESULTS: Non-omnivores presented significant higher levels of orthorexic behaviours and inflexible eating. In both groups, orthorexic behaviours and disordered eating were linked positively to inflexible eating and negatively to intuitive eating. A path model analyses showed that the preferred eating approach mediated the relationship between orthorexic behaviours and disordered eating, explaining 51% of the variance of disordered eating. A multigroup analysis confirmed the model invariance between Omnivores and Non-omnivores. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings contribute to the better understanding of the relationship between orthorexic behaviours and disordered eating and its eating-related processes. Future research regarding the clinical intervention and prevention of ON in women should focus on encouraging a more intuitive eating approach. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV, cross-sectional study.

To further understand orthorexia nervosa: DOS validity for the Portuguese population and its relationship with psychological indicators, sex, BMI and dietary pattern.

PURPOSE: Orthorexia nervosa (ON) is considered a pathological fixation with healthy eating. Despite recent research focus, there is still a lot of inconsistent information concerning ON, including its definition and validity of its measuring tools. This study aimed to extend the current knowledge on ON, by developing and validating the Portuguese adaptation of the Dusseldorf Orthorexie Scale (DOS) and studying its prevalence and relationship with different psychological indicators, sex, BMI and dietary pattern. METHODS: Data were collected online, through self-report questionnaires, and two different samples were collected, with 513 (Sample 1) and 541 participants (Sample 2) from the general population. RESULTS: DOS' one-dimensional factorial structure and reliability was confirmed. ON's prevalence was 10.52%. Results revealed that women present higher scores on DOS than men, but no differences were found regarding the BMI groups. DOS was positively related to all psychological indicators, with moderate and strong relationships with disordered eating and inflexible eating. Sample 2 was used to explore ON's differences between dietary patterns, with results demonstrating that omnivores present significantly lower levels of orthorexic tendencies, when compared with the vegetarian, vegan, and paleo groups. CONCLUSIONS: The present study is the first to successfully validate a measure that assesses ON for the Portuguese population and adds to the existing literature in several other important ON aspects. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V-validation study.

Effects of dietary Bacillus subtilis and Shewanella algae in expression profile of immune-related genes from hemolymph of Litopenaeus vannamei challenged with Vibrio parahaemolyticus.

B. subtilis and S. algae effects in growth, survival and innate immunity were assessed on L. vannamei juveniles. During 60 days, shrimp were reared in three treatments: Bs, fed with 106 CFU of B. subtilis per gram of commercial feed, Sa, fed with 106 CFU of S. algae per gram of commercial feed and Control (without bacterial addition). Then, the animals were subjected to a V. parahaemolyticus challenge. For this purpose, four treatments were established: Control (shrimp not submitted to probiotic treatments), Vibrio (Vibrio challenged shrimp), Vibrio + Bs (Bs challenged shrimp) and Vibrio + Sa (Sa challenged shrimp). Shrimp hemolymph was sampled 45-days after rearing and 24 h post-challenge for quantification of prophenoloxidase (proPO), lipopolysaccharide and ß-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP) and hemocyanin (HEM) transcripts by qPCR. Moreover, shrimp final weight and survival were also verified. B. subtilis administration enhanced shrimp growth and improved proPO, LGBP and HEM expression levels before and after challenge. After 60-days of feeding, Sa final weight was higher than the Control, whereas Vibrio + Sa cumulative mortality after 48 h of Vibrio challenge was lower than Vibrio group. These results could be correlated with the proPO and LGBP up regulation in Vibrio + Sa compared to Vibrio group, protecting L. vannamei from the bacterial infection. Together, these results suggest the probiotic potential of B. subtilis e S. algae in the modulation of immune-related genes as a tool to control V. parahaemolyticus infection inside shrimp.

Artemia franciscana as a vector for infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) to Litopenaeus vannamei juvenile.

In 2004, the infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) was recognized as the main cause of Litopenaeusvannamei shrimp culture's drop in Brazil. In health animal control programs, in order to reduce virus prevalence in production units it is necessary to screen live feed used. Among live diets used in aquaculture, the brine shrimp Artemia sp. is essential in crustacean larviculture and maturation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the susceptibility of Artemiafranciscana to IMNV through an immersion challenge and virus-phytoplankton adhesion route and to elucidate its role as a vector for IMNV transmission to L.vannamei. A. franciscana adults were infected with IMNV through both routes, as demonstrated by PCR-positive reactions. However, infected A. franciscana showed no signs of infection. More than 40% of L. vannamei juveniles fed with IMNV-infected A. franciscana by virus-phytoplankton adhesion route were positive by real-time PCR, whereas only a 10% infection rate was found among shrimp fed with IMNV-infected brine shrimp using the immersion challenge. Significant differences were found in mean viral load between immersion and virus-phytoplankton adhesion shrimp treatments (p ⩽ 0.05). Moreover, the mean viral loads were 1.34 × 10(2) and 1.48 × 10(4) copies/µg(-1) of total RNA for virus-phytoplankton adhesion and IMNV-infected tissue treatments, respectively, and the difference was not significant (p ⩾ 0.05). The results indicated that A. franciscana act as a vector for IMNV transmission under the experimental conditions examined. Although no mass mortalities were detected in L. vannamei fed with IMNV-infected brine shrimp, these infected shrimp should not be disregarded as a source of IMNV in grow-out units.

Effects of salinity on pre- and post-fertilization developmental events in the mangrove oyster Crassostrea rhizophorae (GUILDING, 1828).

The mangrove oyster Crassostrea rhizophorae is identified as a potentially valuable species for tropical aquaculture, however, information on the physiological mechanisms of reproduction under laboratory conditions for this species is limited. This study investigated the effects of salinity at different concentrations (15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 g/L) on the induction of germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) of oocytes obtained through stripping, the release of polar bodies (PB1 and PB2), and the larval development of the mangrove oyster. The results revealed a relationship between salinity and the percentage of GVBD, with the most effective range being 30-40 g/L within the hydration time frame between 70 and 120 min. The release of 50 % of PB1 was detected within this salinity range, while for the release of 50 % of PB2, the saline treatments of 35 and 40 g/L showed the best results. Overall, the salinity range of 30-40 g/L is suggested as the most suitable of polyploidy induction methodologies through the retention of PB1 or PB2. Regarding larval hatching, while salinities between 25 and 40 g/L presented similar percentages, at 15 g/L no hatching was observed. This study demonstrated that salinity is a key factor in early pre- and post-fertilization stages for the successful reproduction of mangrove oyster in hatcheries and that the percentages of oocyte maturation and artificial fertilization can be optimized by adjusting salinity.

Effects of salinity on pre- and post-fertilization developmental events in the clam Anomalocardia flexuosa (Linnaeus, 1767).

The knowledge about the effect of salinity on the physiological mechanism of bivalve reproduction is fundamental to improve production strategies in hatcheries. The present work evaluated the influence of different salinity concentrations (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 g⋅L-1) on pre- and post-fertilization development processes in the clam, Anomalocardia flexuosa, oocytes obtained by stripping. Salinity directly interfered with the germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) rate and in the cellular stability of unfertilized oocytes. Salinity concentrations between 30 and 35 g⋅L-1 provided better percentages of stable GVBD within 120 min, and incubation of oocytes in the salinity range of 30-35 g⋅L-1 for a time interval of 80-120 min provided > 80% GVBD. In the post-fertilization analysis, salinity affected the rate of the extrusion of the first and second polar bodies (PB1 and PB2). The release of 50% of the PBs was faster at a salinity of 35 g⋅L-1, with an estimated time of 10 min for PB1 and 30 min for PB2. Thus, chromosome manipulation methodologies aiming triploids should be applied at 35 g⋅L-1 salinity, with application of post-fertilization shock before 10 min for PB1 retention or before 30 min for PB2 retention.

Effect of dosage of orally administered 17α-methyltestosterone on sex reversion of the yellowtail tetra Astyanax lacustris (Lütken, 1875).

The females of yellowtail tetra (Astyanax lacustris), known as the freshwater sardine, are approximately 1.33 times larger than males, and thus, all-female monosex culture would increase production and reduce size variability. The present work aimed to identify the optimal dose of 17α-methyltestosterone (MT) to be used in the masculinization of A. lacustris for indirect sex reversal. Three different concentrations of MT (20, 40, and 60 mg/kg of feed in the diet) were fed to the fry for 30 days. Thirty adult individuals from each treatment, including the control (0 mg MT/kg), were evaluated for gonadal development, morphological and histological sexual identification, zootechnical performance, and the possible genotoxic effect caused by prolonged exposure to MT. MT significantly (P<0.01) affected the differentiation of the gonads, with the presence of possible inhibitory effects in all treatments. Intersex individuals were present in the 20 and 60 mg MT/kg treatments. All treatments were able to masculinize A. lacustris and the treatment with the lowest hormone concentration produced the highest percentage of males 76.7%, while the control had 46.7% males. The presence of erythrocyte nuclear alterations indicated a possible cytotoxic effect of MT in treatments 40 and 60 mg MT/kg, however, the use of the hormone did not affect the growth and the survival of the individuals. Thus, the use of MT is a viable option for obtaining neomales as a first step into the production of all-female progenies.

Liposomes targeting tumour stromal cells.

Liposomes have found clinical application in cancer therapy in the delivery of cytostatic agents. As a result of the targeted delivery of these toxic molecules to the tumour cells coupled to avoidance of toxicity-sensitive tissues, the therapeutic window is widened. Over the past years the focus of cancer therapy has shifted towards the stromal cells that are present in the tumour. It appears that clinically relevant tumours have acquired the ability to modulate the microenvironment in such a way that a chronic pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic state is achieved that contributes to invasion and metastasis and continued proliferation. Over the past years, liposomal formulations have been designed that target key stromal cell types that contribute to tumour growth. At the same time, many promising cell types have not been targeted yet and most of the studies employ drugs that aim at depleting stromal cells rather than modulating their activity towards an anti-tumour phenotype. In this review these target cell types will be addressed. Complementing these targeted formulations with the appropriate drugs to optimally suppress tumour-promoting signals while preserving anti-tumour action will be the challenge for the future.

Galvanic Corrosion of Ti Dental Implants Coupled to CoCrMo Prosthetic Component.

Dental implant systems are composed of an implant, prosthetic components, and a crown. Since the implants are made of commercially pure Ti (cp Ti) and prosthetic components are often made of Ti and CoCrMo alloys, a galvanic couple between these two devices may lead to galvanic corrosion, ions release, and even loss of the implant. This study aimed to investigate the corrosion resistance and measure the galvanic potential between cp Ti alloys (annealed microstructured cp Ti G4 and cold-worked nanostructured cp Ti G4) and a CoCrMo alloy. The corrosion resistance has been characterized by measuring the open circuit potential, the potentiodynamic polarization, the potentiostatic polarization, and the zero-resistance current. The cp Ti has been tested before and after a surface acid treatment. The samples' surfaces have been examined by scanning electron microscopy, and their surface roughness has been measured by a 3D optical profilometer. The polarization results showed that the CoCrMo alloy showed lower corrosion resistance than cp Ti. The surface acid treatment improves dental implant corrosion resistance. The galvanic analysis showed that the cp Ti without surface treatment behaved as an anode and after the acid treatment has a cathodic behavior in relation to the CrCoMo alloy. The highest value of galvanic current was cp TiG4 acid etched in contact with CoCrMo, in pH 2 solution. The galvanic couple with the lowest current has been the nanostructured cp Ti in contact with CoCrMo alloy.

ATP1A3: an unusual antigen to consider in patients with subacute ataxia and vertical gaze palsy.

The anti-ATP1A3 antibody seems to be directed against a neuronal and cardiac surface protein of the proton ATPase. It was recently identified in a patient with a paraneoplastic syndrome characterized by cerebellar, neuro-ophthalmologic and other neurological symptoms. We report another patient with a similar clinical and radiological syndrome but with a different associated tumor and outcome.

Mechanical testing and finite element analysis of orthodontic teardrop loop.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding how teeth move in response to mechanical loads is an important aspect of orthodontic treatment. Treatment planning should include consideration of the appliances that will meet the desired loading of the teeth to result in optimized treatment outcomes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of computer simulation to predict the force and the torsion obtained after the activation of tear drop loops of 3 heights. METHODS: Seventy-five retraction loops were divided into 3 groups according to height (6, 7, and 8 mm). The loops were subjected to tensile load through displacements of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mm, and the resulting forces and torques were recorded. The loops were designed in AutoCAD software(2005; Autodesk Systems, Alpharetta, GA), and finite element analysis was performed with Ansys software(version 7.0; Swanson Analysis System, Canonsburg, PA). Statistical analysis of the mechanical experiment results was obtained by ANOVA and the Tukey post-hoc test (P < .01). The correlation test and the paired t test (P < .05) were used to compare the computer simulation with the mechanical experiment. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The computer simulation accurately predicted the experimentally determined mechanical behavior of tear drop loops of different heights and should be considered an alternative for designing orthodontic appliances before treatment.

Liposomal prednisolone inhibits tumor growth in a spontaneous mouse mammary carcinoma model.

Cancers are abundantly infiltrated by inflammatory cells that are modulated by tumor cells to secrete mediators fostering tumor cell survival and proliferation. Therefore, agents that interfere with inflammatory signaling molecules or specific immune cell populations have been investigated as anticancer drugs. Corticosteroids are highly potent anti-inflammatory drugs, whose activity is intensified when targeted by nanocarrier systems. Liposome-targeted corticosteroids have been shown to inhibit tumor growth in different syngeneic murine tumor models as well as human xenograft mouse models, which is attributed to a switch in the tumor microenvironment from a pro-inflammatory to an anti-inflammatory state. Despite the recognized value of implantation tumor models in preclinical research, the "acute" inflammation induced by inoculation of tumor cells together with the exponential tumor growth in a relatively short period of time does not resemble slow progressive human disease that develops in situ. Therefore, in this study, the antitumor effect of liposomal corticosteroids was investigated in a clinically more relevant setting of transgenic mice developing spontaneous breast carcinomas. Here we show that liposomal prednisolone phosphate inhibits the growth of spontaneous breast carcinoma. Interestingly, the liposomal prednisolone was significantly more active than free drug. At 72h after injection of the liposomal formulation, 3µg prednisolone per gram of tumor tissue was recovered whereas no drug could be recovered after injection of the free agent. This indicates that, despite etiological and morphological differences between implanted and spontaneous tumor models, EPR-mediated accumulation of drug occurs to similar extent in this spontaneous mammary carcinoma model as in the syngeneic tumor models. Finally, we analyzed miRNA profiles in the MMTV/neu model and showed that the top 10 of miRNAs in the MMTV/neu tumor consisted of miRNAs with a known involvement in breast carcinoma proliferation and metastasis. The only exception was the appearance of miR-146b, a known inflammation-regulating miRNA species, after liposomal prednisolone treatment.

Cetuximab treatment alters the content of extracellular vesicles released from tumor cells.

AIM: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are attractive candidates for biomarker research, because their content reflects the parental cell status. This study aimed to examine whether tumor cell derived EVs mirrored the cellular changes caused by treatment with cetuximab, a therapeutic antibody that blocks activation of EGF receptor (EGFR). MATERIALS & METHODS: A-431 cells were treated with cetuximab for 48 h. EVs were isolated using differential centrifugation and protein content was analyzed using western blotting. RESULTS: EV levels of EGFR and phospho-EGFR were reduced after cetuximab treatment, reflecting similar changes in the parental cells. In addition, cetuximab was found associated with EVs. CONCLUSION: EVs could serve as biomarkers to monitor cetuximab treatment. Association of cetuximab with EVs might influence its behavior.

Genetic characterization of Entamoeba dispar isolates in Northeast Brazil.

The genetic variability of Entamoeba dispar strains was investigated in 39 positive isolates on a survey of 1783 individuals from two different cities of Northeast Brazil (Recife and Macaparana) using two polymorphic species-specific loci (loci 1-2 and 5-6). A combinatory clustering analysis revealed no geographical correlation and remarkable genetic polymorphism among all the isolates examined. Nevertheless, a comparison of the frequency of eight individual PCR products, shared by both Recife and Macaparana populations, for the two loci, showed that only one product of locus 5-6 was significantly different between the two cities. These results suggested that the Macaparana population is infected by similar strains and that locus 5-6 shows potential in assaying questions related to the molecular epidemiology of this region.