Development of Spectral Disease Indices for 'Flavescence Dorée' Grapevine Disease Identification.

Spectral measurements are employed in many precision agriculture applications, due to their ability to monitor the vegetation's health state. Spectral vegetation indices are one of the main techniques currently used in remote sensing activities, since they are related to biophysical and biochemical crop variables. Moreover, they have been evaluated in some studies as potentially beneficial for detecting or differentiating crop diseases. Flavescence Dorée (FD) is an infectious, incurable disease of the grapevine that can produce severe yield losses and, hence, compromise the stability of the vineyards. The aim of this study was to develop specific spectral disease indices (SDIs) for the detection of FD disease in grapevines. Spectral signatures of healthy and diseased grapevine leaves were measured with a non-imaging spectro-radiometer at two infection severity levels. The most discriminating wavelengths were selected by a genetic algorithm (GA) feature selection tool, the Spectral Disease Indices (SDIs) are designed by exhaustively testing all possible combinations of wavelengths chosen. The best weighted combination of a single wavelength and a normalized difference is chosen to create the index. The SDIs are tested for their ability to differentiate healthy from diseased vine leaves and they are compared to some common set of Spectral Vegetation Indices (SVIs). It was demonstrated that using vegetation indices was, in general, better than using complete spectral data and that SDIs specifically designed for FD performed better than traditional SVIs in most of cases. The precision of the classification is higher than 90%. This study demonstrates that SDIs have the potential to improve disease detection, identification and monitoring in precision agriculture applications.

Spray Droplet Characterization from a Single Nozzle by High Speed Image Analysis Using an In-Focus Droplet Criterion.

Accurate spray characterization helps to better understand the pesticide spray application process. The goal of this research was to present the proof of principle of a droplet size and velocity measuring technique for different types of hydraulic spray nozzles using a high speed backlight image acquisition and analysis system. As only part of the drops of an agricultural spray can be in focus at any given moment, an in-focus criterion based on the gray level gradient was proposed to decide whether a given droplet is in focus or not. In a first experiment, differently sized droplets were generated with a piezoelectric generator and studied to establish the relationship between size and in-focus characteristics. In a second experiment, it was demonstrated that droplet sizes and velocities from a real sprayer could be measured reliably in a non-intrusive way using the newly developed image acquisition set-up and image processing. Measured droplet sizes ranged from 24 µm to 543 µm, depending on the nozzle type and size. Droplet velocities ranged from around 0.5 m/s to 12 m/s. The droplet size and velocity results were compared and related well with the results obtained with a Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer (PDPA).

Development of a High Irradiance LED Configuration for Small Field of View Motion Estimation of Fertilizer Particles.

Better characterization of the fertilizer spreading process, especially the fertilizer pattern distribution on the ground, requires an accurate measurement of individual particle properties and dynamics. Both 2D and 3D high speed imaging techniques have been developed for this purpose. To maximize the accuracy of the predictions, a specific illumination level is required. This paper describes the development of a high irradiance LED system for high speed motion estimation of fertilizer particles. A spectral sensitivity factor was used to select the optimal LED in relation to the used camera from a range of commercially available high power LEDs. A multiple objective genetic algorithm was used to find the optimal configuration of LEDs resulting in the most homogeneous irradiance in the target area. Simulations were carried out for different lenses and number of LEDs. The chosen configuration resulted in an average irradiance level of 452 W/m² with coefficient of variation less than 2%. The algorithm proved superior and more flexible to other approaches reported in the literature and can be used for various other applications.

High speed stereovision setup for position and motion estimation of fertilizer particles leaving a centrifugal spreader.

A 3D imaging technique using a high speed binocular stereovision system was developed in combination with corresponding image processing algorithms for accurate determination of the parameters of particles leaving the spinning disks of centrifugal fertilizer spreaders. Validation of the stereo-matching algorithm using a virtual 3D stereovision simulator indicated an error of less than 2 pixels for 90% of the particles. The setup was validated using the cylindrical spread pattern of an experimental spreader. A 2D correlation coefficient of 90% and a Relative Error of 27% was found between the experimental results and the (simulated) spread pattern obtained with the developed setup. In combination with a ballistic flight model, the developed image acquisition and processing algorithms can enable fast determination and evaluation of the spread pattern which can be used as a tool for spreader design and precise machine calibration.

3D image acquisition system based on shape from focus technique.

This paper describes the design of a 3D image acquisition system dedicated to natural complex scenes composed of randomly distributed objects with spatial discontinuities. In agronomic sciences, the 3D acquisition of natural scene is difficult due to the complex nature of the scenes. Our system is based on the Shape from Focus technique initially used in the microscopic domain. We propose to adapt this technique to the macroscopic domain and we detail the system as well as the image processing used to perform such technique. The Shape from Focus technique is a monocular and passive 3D acquisition method that resolves the occlusion problem affecting the multi-cameras systems. Indeed, this problem occurs frequently in natural complex scenes like agronomic scenes. The depth information is obtained by acting on optical parameters and mainly the depth of field. A focus measure is applied on a 2D image stack previously acquired by the system. When this focus measure is performed, we can create the depth map of the scene.

In situ Phenotyping of Grapevine Root System Architecture by 2D or 3D Imaging: Advantages and Limits of Three Cultivation Methods.

The root system plays an essential role in the development and physiology of the plant, as well as in its response to various stresses. However, it is often insufficiently studied, mainly because it is difficult to visualize. For grapevine, a plant of major economic interest, there is a growing need to study the root system, in particular to assess its resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, understand the decline that may affect it, and identify new ecofriendly production systems. In this context, we have evaluated and compared three distinct growing methods (hydroponics, plane, and cylindric rhizotrons) in order to describe relevant architectural root traits of grapevine cuttings (mode of grapevine propagation), and also two 2D- (hydroponics and rhizotron) and one 3D- (neutron tomography) imaging techniques for visualization and quantification of roots. We observed that hydroponics tubes are a system easy to implement but do not allow the direct quantification of root traits over time, conversely to 2D imaging in rhizotron. We demonstrated that neutron tomography is relevant to quantify the root volume. We have also produced a new automated analysis method of digital photographs, adapted for identifying adventitious roots as a feature of root architecture in rhizotrons. This method integrates image segmentation, skeletonization, detection of adventitious root skeleton, and adventitious root reconstruction. Although this study was targeted to grapevine, most of the results obtained could be extended to other plants propagated by cuttings. Image analysis methods could also be adapted to characterization of the root system from seedlings.

RhizoTubes as a new tool for high throughput imaging of plant root development and architecture: test, comparison with pot grown plants and validation.

BACKGROUND: In order to maintain high yields while saving water and preserving non-renewable resources and thus limiting the use of chemical fertilizer, it is crucial to select plants with more efficient root systems. This could be achieved through an optimization of both root architecture and root uptake ability and/or through the improvement of positive plant interactions with microorganisms in the rhizosphere. The development of devices suitable for high-throughput phenotyping of root structures remains a major bottleneck. RESULTS: Rhizotrons suitable for plant growth in controlled conditions and non-invasive image acquisition of plant shoot and root systems (RhizoTubes) are described. These RhizoTubes allow growing one to six plants simultaneously, having a maximum height of 1.1 m, up to 8 weeks, depending on plant species. Both shoot and root compartment can be imaged automatically and non-destructively throughout the experiment thanks to an imaging cabin (RhizoCab). RhizoCab contains robots and imaging equipment for obtaining high-resolution pictures of plant roots. Using this versatile experimental setup, we illustrate how some morphometric root traits can be determined for various species including model (Medicago truncatula), crops (Pisum sativum, Brassica napus, Vitis vinifera, Triticum aestivum) and weed (Vulpia myuros) species grown under non-limiting conditions or submitted to various abiotic and biotic constraints. The measurement of the root phenotypic traits using this system was compared to that obtained using "classic" growth conditions in pots. CONCLUSIONS: This integrated system, to include 1200 Rhizotubes, will allow high-throughput phenotyping of plant shoots and roots under various abiotic and biotic environmental conditions. Our system allows an easy visualization or extraction of roots and measurement of root traits for high-throughput or kinetic analyses. The utility of this system for studying root system architecture will greatly facilitate the identification of genetic and environmental determinants of key root traits involved in crop responses to stresses, including interactions with soil microorganisms.