Multidimensional social support and parenting among Black fathers: A profile-oriented approach.

Though studies have examined the role of social support in the lives of Black men, less is known about the role and function of multi-domain social support as they navigate fatherhood. This investigation utilizes a profile-oriented approach to identify patterns of general and parenting-specific social support (i.e., family; peers; community) among a sample of 759 Black American fathers. Additionally, this study examines how identified support profiles are associated with Black fathers' parenting outcomes (i.e., stress, satisfaction, self-efficacy, and involvement). Latent class analyses identified 10 distinct social support profiles among Black fathers. Results also indicated that there was some profile variation in levels parenting outcomes. Findings suggest variation in the availability and utilization of general and parenting support among Black fathers.

Advancing scholarship on anti-racism within developmental science: Reflections on the special section and recommendations for future research.

To date, theoretical and conceptual scholarship on anti-racism has been advanced through leading contributions from several disciplines (e.g., sociology, education, psychology). Still, there remain fewer empirical studies on anti-racism constructs, and we know little about the development of anti-racism among diverse youth across key stages of development. In this special section of Child Development, we sought to address this gap by highlighting scholarship in developmental science that attends to the development of anti-racism in children across contexts (e.g., families, schools) and developmental stages (e.g., early childhood through emerging adulthood). In our introduction to the special section, we review the collective contributions of included studies and outline recommendations for future research in the development of anti-racism in youth.

School Discrimination, Discipline Inequities, and Adjustment Among Black Adolescent Girls and Boys: An Intersectionality-Informed Approach: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence.

Employing an intersectionality-informed approach, this investigation examines how school discrimination and disciplinary inequities shape Black adolescent boys' and girls' adjustment. One hundred and twenty-six adolescents (M = 11.88 years; SD = 1.02) residing in the Southeastern United States comprised the study sample. Results indicated that school discrimination was associated with greater depressive symptoms, lower academic persistence, and lower school satisfaction (at 1-year follow-up). In a counterintuitive pattern, adolescents' perceptions of disciplinary inequities were associated with greater persistence. This investigation provided partial support for gender variation. Perceptions of school disciplinary inequities were associated with lower educational aspirations for girls, whereas systemic school discrimination was more strongly associated with boys' educational aspirations. Overall, our study suggests that school-specific systemic discrimination and disciplinary practices shape Black adolescents' adjustment.

'That is why we raise children': African American fathers' race-related concerns for their adolescents and parenting strategies.

INTRODUCTION: The current study highlights the voices and perspectives of African American fathers, with specific emphasis on their race-related concerns for their adolescents as well as how these concerns guide their parenting strategies. METHOD: Twenty-four African American fathers participated in 1.5-3 h long focus group interviews. All fathers (M = 42.24 years, SD = 6.93) resided in a mid-sized city in the Southeastern United States. All participants were either biological fathers (n = 20) or non-biological (n = 4) fathers. Fathers were residential (76%) and non-residential (24%), with at least one adolescent child (M = 14.32 years, SD = 5.80; Range: 10-16 years). Fifty-eight percent of fathers (n = 14) had both male and female children, 29% had only female children (n = 7) and 13% had only male children (n = 3). After codebook development and refinement, key themes were explored using a theoretical thematic analysis. RESULTS: In response to race-related and other social risks for African American adolescents, fathers articulated a number of parenting motivations and intentions: 1) fathers' own racial experiences; 2) negative media images of Black youth and families (e.g. media influences, negative stereotypes, and portrayals of Black fathers); 3) preserving families through community support; 4) developing awareness of discrimination and coping strategies; 5) cultivating positive personal and cultural identities; and 6) achievement as necessity. Also, gender emerged as a critical lens for African American fathers' concerns and parenting strategies. CONCLUSION: Overall, our investigation highlights African American fathers' own meaning-making around concerns for their adolescents as well as how they shape parenting processes.

Racial identity mediates the association between ethnic-racial socialization and depressive symptoms.

Ethnic-racial socialization has been positively linked with psychological adjustment; however, the mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear. In this study, the authors examined the mediating role of racial identity in the association between racial socialization and depressive symptoms. Participants were 211 African American young adults (62% female; mean age = 20.73, SD = 1.90) recruited from a predominately White southeastern university. Multivariate mediation analyses revealed an indirect effect of racial pride messages on depressive symptoms through private regard such that individuals who reported receiving more frequent racial pride messages were more likely to feel positively about their race, and, in turn, less likely to report depressive symptoms. Individuals who reported that their parents engaged in more socialization activities (e.g., attending cultural events) were also more likely to feel positively about their race and, in turn, report fewer depressive symptoms. These results suggest that positive feelings about one's race are important considerations in our understanding of the relation between ethnic-racial socialization and youth psychological adjustment.

Honoring foundational Black psychologists' contributions to research on Black fathers.

Much of the early psychological research on Black fathers and families employed a deficit lens, pathologizing Black fathers as absent and uninvolved contributors to their children's development. As a response, several Black psychologists articulated the need to move away from deficit-based approaches and employ strengths-based and adaptive frameworks to examine the social experiences of Black fathers and their contributions to child development. This transformative work was not only central to advancing research on Black fathers but also a cornerstone in the broader fathering literature. Though the list of foundational architects of Black fatherhood scholarship spans disciplines, we center this article around the contributions of eight Black psychologists-Drs. Phillip Bowman, Cleopatra Howard Caldwell, Anderson J. Franklin, Nancy Boyd-Franklin, Vivian Gadsden, Harriette Pipes McAdoo, John L. McAdoo, and Melvin Wilson. Their collective works and scientific contributions provided a critical lens and articulated a vision for research on Black fathers. In highlighting their contributions, we focus on six thematic areas: (a) conceptual and theoretical advancements, (b) research methods and designs that centered Black fathers, (c) description and contextualization, (d) children's development and well-being, (e) theory to practice and intervention, and (f) scientific cross-pollination and collaborative ethos. Last, we review and highlight research branches and extensions of these foundational roots. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial group regard, barrier socialization, and African American adolescents' engagement: patterns and processes by gender.

The current study examined gendered processes via 1) profiles of racial barrier socialization, regard for one's racial group (private regard), and behavioral engagement and grades and, 2) gender and private regard as a moderator in the link between barrier messages and academic engagement outcomes. One-hundred and twenty-five African American adolescents (ages 10-14, M = 12.39, SD = 1.07) completed measures of socialization, private regard, grades and behavioral engagement. Latent Profile Analysis revealed a 2-cluster solution fit the data best - 1) High Engagement-Race Salient (HERS) cluster and 2) Low Engagement-Non-Salient cluster (LENS). Girls had higher representation in the HERS cluster. When private regard was examined as a moderator, girls' grades were unrelated to barrier socialization and private regard. In contrast, barrier socialization was associated with lower grades for low private regard boys. Findings are discussed in the context of gendered racial school contexts that African American youth must navigate to be academically successful.

"When I Think of Black Girls, I Think of Opportunities": Black Girls' Identity Development and the Protective Role of Parental Socialization in Educational Settings.

While educational settings may be envisioned as safe spaces that facilitate learning, foster creativity, and promote healthy development for youth, research has found that this is not always true for Black girls. Their negative experiences within educational settings are both gendered and racialized, often communicating broader societal perceptions of Black girls that ultimately shape their identity development. Utilizing semi-structured interviews with adolescent Black girls (n = 12), the current investigation explored Black girls' educational experiences, their meaning making of Black girlhood, and the role of parents in their positive development. By centering Black girls' voices, this study illuminated how Black girls negotiate their multiple marginalized identities and how their identities are shaped by their home and school environments. Findings revealed that Black girls are aware of the difficulties in navigating educational settings for Black girls, but this awareness was coupled with parental support that promoted positive gendered racial identities for Black girls in middle school and high school. This investigation advanced current knowledge of Black girls' identity development and highlighted the protective role of parental socialization. Future research directions and implications are also discussed.

Black American Fathers Employed in Higher-Risk Contexts for Contracting COVID-19: Implications for Individual Wellbeing and Work-Family Spillover.

Black Americans remain disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Emerging data suggests that employment in certain occupations (e.g., essential; frontline) may place individuals at higher-risk for contracting COVID-19. The current investigation examined how Black American fathers' COVID-19 perceived work risk was associated with their individual well-being (COVID-19 diagnosis; depressive and anxiety symptoms; sleep disturbance; sleep quality) as well as spillover into family contexts. Participants were 466 Black American fathers (M = 36.63; SD = 11.00) who completed online surveys in June-July 2020. Adjusted binomial logistic and multiple regressions were estimated to examine how fathers' work context was associated with COVID-19 health outcomes, psychological functioning, sleep health, and family stress. Descriptive analyses revealed that 32% of fathers reported a personal diagnosis of COVID-19 and 21% indicated that an immediate family member had been diagnosed. Adjusted binomial logistic regression analyses revealed that fathers working in higher-risk contexts for contracting COVID-19 had a greater odds ratio for both a personal (OR: 1.68, 95% CI: 1.05, 2.68) and an immediate family member diagnosis (OR: 2.58, 95% CI: 1.52, 4.36). Working in a higher-risk context for contracting COVID-19 was associated with poorer psychological functioning, greater sleep disturbance, and higher levels of family discord. Findings suggest that Black fathers working in higher risk contexts may be at risk for COVID-19 exposure and infection. Further, this study indicates that these effects extend to their own well-being, including mental and sleep health as well as increased family stress.

Culturally distinctive and academic socialization: direct and interactive relationships with African American adolescents' academic adjustment.

Theories of ethnic minority development have largely suggested that African American parents engage in a combination of practices that include culturally distinctive socialization as well as behaviors that are characteristic of more universal forms of academic socialization. However, few studies have examined how these socialization dimensions interact to influence the academic adjustment of African American adolescents. The current study explored the independent and interactive roles of parental academic and culturally distinctive socialization on the academic adjustment of African American adolescents. The sample was comprised 144 African American adolescents (M = 12.4; SD = 1.14; 56% female). Findings provided partial support that cultural and academic socialization were independently associated with indicators of academic adjustment. However, the interaction between these dimensions also was associated with youths' adjustment in the academic domain.

Parenting profiles of academic and racial socialization: Associations with academic engagement and academic self-beliefs of African American adolescents.

In addition to being involved and encouraging their youth academically, many African American caregivers also employ socialization practices that prepare their adolescents for entering into a school system where they will be an ethnic minority or be taught by predominantly non-minority educators. The purpose of the current investigation was to fill existing gaps in the literature by examining two dimensions of parental socialization practices: academic socialization (parent school involvement and academic encouragement) and racial socialization (cultural pride, preparation for bias, and egalitarian messages). Additionally, this study examined how the identified profiles are associated with African American adolescents' academic outcomes (academic engagement and academic self-beliefs). A latent profile analysis was utilized to analyze data on 140 African American adolescent participants (M = 12.4; SD = 1.13; 56% female). Profiles that were identified included (a) academic socializers, (b) low race salient socializers, (c) preparation for bias socializers, (d) unengaged socializers, (e) multifaceted socializers, and (f) race salient socializers. Although there was no demographic (age, gender, SES) variation in profile membership, there were some differences in academic engagement and adolescents' academic-self beliefs. Findings highlight the importance of examining how academic and racial socialization work together and their association with adolescents' academic outcomes. Implications are discussed for school psychologists and educators.

Profiles of African American College Students' Alcohol Use and Sexual Behaviors: Associations With Stress, Racial Discrimination, and Social Support.

Though studies show that alcohol use and sexual activity increase during emerging adulthood, few studies examine within-ethnic group differences, particularly among African American college students. This investigation utilized a latent class analytic methodology to identify risk behavior profiles of alcohol use (frequency and amount of alcohol consumed), sexual activity (number of intimate partners), and co-occurring risk behaviors (drinking before sexual intercourse) among 228 African American college students. This investigation also examined whether identified risk behavior profiles were associated with stress (interpersonal, intrapersonal, academic, and environmental), experiences of racial discrimination, and social support (from family, friends, and the college community). Results identified five distinct profiles within this sample: (a) High Sexual Risk-above-average sexual activity; (b) Abstainers-below-average alcohol use and sexual activity; (c) Low Risk-average alcohol use and sexual activity; (d) Alcohol Risk-above-average alcohol use and below-average sexual activity; and (e) Co-Occurring Risk-above-average alcohol use and sexual activity. Identified profiles differed across interpersonal and environmental stress, and self-reported frequency of experiences with racial discrimination. Implications for prevention programs and interventions aimed at reducing alcohol and sexual activity for African American college students are discussed.

Gender and ethnic differences in smoking, drinking and illicit drug use among American 8th, 10th and 12th grade students, 1976-2000.

AIMS: This paper examines ethnic differences in licit and illicit drug use among American 8th, 10th and 12th grade students, with a particular focus on girls. DESIGN: The study uses cross-sectional data from large, ethnically diverse, nationally representative samples of 8th, 10th and 12th grade girls. SETTING: Data were collected through questionnaires administered in schools. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 40 416 8th grade girls and 37 977 8th grade boys, 35 451 10th grade girls and 33 188 10th grade boys, and 33 588 12th grade girls and 31 014 12th grade boys took part in the study. FINDINGS: Across ethnic groups, drug use is highest among Native American girls and lowest among black and Asian American girls. Trend data suggest that there have been important changes in girls' drug use over time and that girls' and boys' drug use patterns are converging. CONCLUSIONS: Drug use is widespread among American adolescent girls. Future research should examine further girls' drug use and seek to identify whether risk and protective factors identified in past research, based on predominantly white samples, are also important predictors for drug use among non-white girls.

Tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use: racial and ethnic differences among U.S. high school seniors, 1976-2000.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines differences in adolescents' use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs by racial and ethnic groups. METHODS: The authors analyzed questionnaire data from large, nationally representative samples of U.S. high school seniors to examine differences in drug use prevalence and trends among racial and ethnic groups between 1976 and 2000. RESULTS: On average, American Indian seniors showed the highest levels of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use. Cuban American and white seniors also tended to have relatively high levels of substance use, followed by Mexican American and Puerto Rican seniors. Other Latin American, African American, and Asian American seniors reported the lowest levels of drug use. Most of these differences are longstanding, but some have widened and others narrowed during the past 25 years. CONCLUSION: Significant differences exist in adolescent use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs by racial and ethnic groups, and these differences have changed over time. Future research should examine these differences and seek to identify the sources and consequences of the disparities.

Culturally sensitive risk behavior prevention programs for African American adolescents: a systematic analysis.

The current review conducted a systematic assessment of culturally sensitive risk prevention programs for African American adolescents. Prevention programs meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria were evaluated across several domains: (1) theoretical orientation and foundation; (2) methodological rigor; (3) level of cultural integration; (4) program target or domain (e.g., schools, communities, families); (5) outcome change level assessed (e.g., addressing change in beliefs/values or behaviors); and (6) program effects on risk behaviors. Thirteen studies (N = 13) with adolescent participants ranging from 10 to 18 years were identified and evaluated. Analyses suggested that more effective culturally sensitive risk prevention programs included the following: (1) a clearly articulated theoretical orientation, which utilized both universal (e.g., behavioral theories) and culturally specific (e.g., Africultural theories) frameworks; (2) a rigorous methodological design (e.g., inclusion of control group, utilization of program manuals, valid and reliable study measures); (3) an integration of culture at multiple levels (e.g., accessibility, delivery, and content) of programming; (4) consideration of the influence of multiple contexts and domains (e.g., family, community, school); (5) multiple behavior change outcomes (e.g., behaviors, relationships, values); and (6) sustained program effects over time. Recommendations for increasing the effectiveness and efficacy of culturally sensitive prevention programs are discussed.

Degrees of difference among minority female juvenile offenders' psychological functioning, risk behavior engagement, and health status: a latent profile investigation.

Given the increase in the number of female youth who come in contact with the juvenile justice system, particularly those from ethnic minority backgrounds, concerns have been raised about the health status of this population. Using a latent profile analysis, we identified health profiles using indicators of psychological well-being, health risk behaviors, and health status. Participants included 153 minority adolescent females (M=15.13, SD=1.70) who were currently in a juvenile diversion program. Results indicated that a three-class solution fit the data optimally. Profiles included girls with low to moderate health risks (n=35; 22.9%), higher mental health symptoms (n=68; 44.4%), and a combination of multiple health risks (n=50; 32.7%). Additionally, demographic, contextual and offense-related variation existed across health profiles. Treatment and policy implications are discussed.

Racial Barrier Socialization and the Well-being of African American Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Mother-Adolescent Relationship Quality.

Racial socialization has been suggested as an important factor in helping African American adolescents cope effectively with racism and discrimination. Although multiple studies have reported a positive link between racial pride socialization and psychological adjustment among African American youth, assessments of the association between adolescent adjustment and another dimension of racial socialization-racial barrier socialization-have yielded inconsistent findings. Using a sample of 190 African American adolescents, the present study focuses attention on the quality of mother-adolescent relations as an indicator of affective context, and examines its moderating influence on the association between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment. Regression analyses indicated that the link between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment is moderated by mother-adolescent relationship quality. However, these associations varied by gender.

Ecological influences on health-promoting and health-compromising behaviors: a socially embedded approach to urban African American girls' health.

An ecological framework provides the underpinnings for the examination of factors associated with the health-promoting and health-compromising behaviors of African American adolescent females (N=137). Findings indicate that more positive family, peer, and neighborhood factors were associated with less engagement in health-compromising behaviors and increased engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Also, more positive family interactions buffered the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and adolescents' engagement in health-compromising behaviors. Overall, the findings suggest that the health-related behaviors of African American adolescent females are best understood in the context of their social relationships and environmental contexts.