CTLA-4 as a genetic determinant in autoimmune Addison's disease.

In common with several other autoimmune diseases, autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) is thought to be caused by a combination of deleterious susceptibility polymorphisms in several genes, together with undefined environmental factors and stochastic events. To date, the strongest genomic association with AAD has been with alleles at the HLA locus, DR3-DQ2 and DR4. The contribution of other genetic variants has been inconsistent. We have studied the association of 16 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the CD28-CTLA-4-ICOS genomic locus, in a cohort comprising 691 AAD patients of Norwegian and UK origin with matched controls. We have also performed a meta-analysis including 1002 patients from European countries. The G-allele of SNP rs231775 in CTLA-4 is associated with AAD in Norwegian patients (odds ratio (OR)=1.35 (confidence interval (CI) 1.10-1.66), P=0.004), but not in UK patients. The same allele is associated with AAD in the total European population (OR=1.37 (CI 1.13-1.66), P=0.002). A three-marker haplotype, comprising PROMOTER_1661, rs231726 and rs1896286 was found to be associated with AAD in the Norwegian cohort only (OR 2.43 (CI 1.68-3.51), P=0.00013). This study points to the CTLA-4 gene as a susceptibility locus for the development of AAD, and refines its mapping within the wider genomic locus.

Distinct genetic loci control development of benign and malignant skin tumours in mice.

Genetic susceptibility to chemically induced skin cancer in mice is controlled by multiple unlinked genetic loci. Mus spretus mice have dominant resistance genes which confer resistance to interspecific F1 hybrids with susceptible Mus musculus strains. We have mapped three major resistance loci using a combination of Mapmaker/QTL analysis and multiple regression analysis to mouse chromosomes 5 and 7. At least two independent loci on chromosome 7 exert their effects primarily during benign tumour development and have very little influence on tumour progression. On the other hand, probably a single locus on chromosome 5 affects both early and late stages of malignancy. The results indicate that benign and malignant tumours are largely under independent genetic control.

A male-female bias in type 1 diabetes and linkage to chromosome Xp in MHC HLA-DR3-positive patients.

It is generally assumed that the male:female (M:F) ratio in patients with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is 1. A recent survey, however, revealed that high incidence countries (mainly European) have a high M:F ratio and low incidence ones (Asian and African) have a low M:F ratio. We have now analysed the M:F ratio according to genotype at the major locus, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC; IDDM1). There are two main IDDM1 susceptibility haplotypes, HLA-DR3 and -DR4, which are present in 95% of Caucasian cases. We report here that in medium/high incidence Caucasian populations from the United States of America, United Kingdom and Sardinia (1307 cases), the bias in male incidence is largely restricted to the DR3/X category of patients (X not = DR4) with a M:F ratio of 1.7 (P=9.3x10(-7)), compared with a ratio of 1.0 in the DR4/Y category (Y;DR3). This is additional evidence for significant heterogeneity between the aetiology of 'DR4-associated' and 'DR3-associated' diabetes. We analysed linkage of type 1 diabetes to chromosome X, and as expected, most of the linkage to Xp13-p11 was in the DR3/X affected sibpair families (n=97; peak multipoint MLS at DXS1068=3.5, P=2.7x10(-4); single point MLS=4.5, P=2.7x10(-5)). This is evidence for aetiological heterogeneity at the IDDM1/MHC locus and, therefore, in the search for non-MHC loci in type 1 diabetes, conditioning of linkage data by HLA type is advised.

Polygenic control of autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice.

Partial exclusion mapping of the nonobese (NOD) diabetic mouse genome has shown linkage of diabetes to at least five different chromosomes. We have now excluded almost all of the genome for the presence of susceptibility genes with fully recessive effects and have obtained evidence of linkage of ten distinct loci to diabetes or the prediabetic lesion, insulitis, indicative of a polygenic mode of inheritance. The relative importance of these loci and their interactions have been assessed using a new application of multiple polychotomous regression methods. A candidate disease gene, interleukin-2 (Il-2), which is closely linked to insulitis and diabetes, is shown to have a different sequence in NOD, including an insertion and a deletion of tandem repeat sequences which encode amino acid repeats in the mature protein.

Chromosome-specific microsatellite sets for fluorescence-based, semi-automated genome mapping.

To facilitate large-scale genetic mapping of the human genome, we have developed chromosome-specific sets of microsatellite marker loci suitable for use with a fluorescence-based automated DNA fragment analyser. We present 254 dinucleotide repeat marker loci (80% from the Généthon genetic linkage map) arranged into 39 sets, covering all 22 autosomes and the X chromosome. The average distance between adjacent markers is 13 centiMorgans, and less than 4% of the genome lies more than 20 cM from the nearest marker. Each set of microsatellites consists of up to nine marker loci, with allele size ranges that do not overlap. We selected marker loci on the basis of their reliability in the polymerase chain reaction, polymorphism content, map position and the accuracy with which alleles can be scored automatically by the Genotyper program.

Haplotype tagging for the identification of common disease genes.

Genome-wide linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping of common disease genes could be more powerful than linkage analysis if the appropriate density of polymorphic markers were known and if the genotyping effort and cost of producing such an LD map could be reduced. Although different metrics that measure the extent of LD have been evaluated, even the most recent studies have not placed significant emphasis on the most informative and cost-effective method of LD mapping-that based on haplotypes. We have scanned 135 kb of DNA from nine genes, genotyped 122 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; approximately 184,000 genotypes) and determined the common haplotypes in a minimum of 384 European individuals for each gene. Here we show how knowledge of the common haplotypes and the SNPs that tag them can be used to (i) explain the often complex patterns of LD between adjacent markers, (ii) reduce genotyping significantly (in this case from 122 to 34 SNPs), (iii) scan the common variation of a gene sensitively and comprehensively and (iv) provide key fine-mapping data within regions of strong LD. Our results also indicate that, at least for the genes studied here, the current version of dbSNP would have been of limited utility for LD mapping because many common haplotypes could not be defined. A directed re-sequencing effort of the approximately 10% of the genome in or near genes in the major ethnic groups would aid the systematic evaluation of the common variant model of common disease.

Wide spectrum of filaggrin-null mutations in atopic dermatitis highlights differences between Singaporean Chinese and European populations.

BACKGROUND: Null mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) cause ichthyosis vulgaris (IV) and predispose to atopic dermatitis (AD). Cohort studies in Europe and Japan have reported an FLG mutation carrier frequency of between 14% and 56%, but the prevalent European FLG mutations are rare or absent in Chinese patients with IV and AD. OBJECTIVES: To investigate further the spectrum of FLG-null mutations in Chinese patients and to compare it with that in other populations. METHODS: We conducted comprehensive FLG genetic analysis in a discovery cohort of 92 Singaporean Chinese individuals with IV and/or moderate-to-severe AD. All detected FLG mutations were then screened in a cohort of 425 patients with AD and 440 normal controls. Results In total, 22 FLG-null mutations, of which 14 are novel, were identified in this study; the combined null FLG genotype of 17 mutations detected in cases and controls showed strong association with AD [Fisher's exact test; P = 5·3 × 10⁻9; odds ratio (OR) 3·3], palmar hyperlinearity (Fisher's exact test; P = 9·0 × 10⁻¹5; OR 5·8), keratosis pilaris (Fisher's exact test; P = 0·001; OR 4·7) and with increased severity of AD (permutation test; P = 0·0063). CONCLUSIONS: This study emphasizes the wider genetic landscape of FLG-null mutations in Asia that is slowly emerging.

Filaggrin haploinsufficiency is highly penetrant and is associated with increased severity of eczema: further delineation of the skin phenotype in a prospective epidemiological study of 792 school children.

BACKGROUND: Null mutations within the filaggrin gene (FLG) cause ichthyosis vulgaris and are associated with atopic eczema. However, the dermatological features of filaggrin haploinsufficiency have not been clearly defined. OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the genotype-phenotype association between detailed skin phenotype and FLG genotype data in a population-based cohort of children. METHODS: Children (n = 792) aged 7-9 years were examined by a dermatologist. Features of ichthyosis vulgaris, atopic eczema and xerosis were recorded and eczema severity graded using the Three Item Severity score. Each child was genotyped for the six most prevalent FLG null mutations (R501X, 2282del4, R2447X, S3247X, 3702delG, 3673delC). Fisher's exact test was used to compare genotype frequencies in phenotype groups; logistic regression analysis was used to estimate odds ratios and penetrance of the FLG null genotype and a permutation test performed to investigate eczema severity in different genotype groups. RESULTS: Ten children in this cohort had ichthyosis vulgaris, of whom five had mild-moderate eczema. The penetrance of FLG null mutations with respect to flexural eczema was 55.6% in individuals with two mutations, 16.3% in individuals with one mutation and 14.2% in wild-type individuals. Summating skin features known to be associated with FLG null mutations (ichthyosis, keratosis pilaris, palmar hyperlinearity and flexural eczema) showed a penetrance of 100% in children with two FLG mutations, 87.8% in children with one FLG mutation and 46.5% in wild-type individuals (P < 0.0001, Fisher exact test). FLG null mutations were associated with more severe eczema (P = 0.0042) but the mean difference was only 1-2 points in severity score. Three distinct patterns of palmar hyperlinearity were observed and these are reported for the first time. CONCLUSIONS: Filaggrin haploinsufficiency appears to be highly penetrant when all relevant skin features are included in the analysis. FLG null mutations are associated with more severe eczema, but the effect size is small in a population setting.

Multifactorial inheritance in type 1 diabetes.

To date, twelve separate chromosome regions have been implicated in the development of human type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. The major disease locus, IDDM1 in the major histocompatibility complex(MHC) on chromosome 6p21, accounts for about 35% of the observed familial clustering and its contribution to disease susceptibility is likely to involve polymorphic residues of class II molecules in T-cell-mediated autoimmunity. IDDM2 is encoded by a minisatellite locus embedded in the 5' regulatory region of the insulin gene. Familial clustering of disease can be explained by the sharing of alleles of at least 10 loci. IDDM1 and IDDM2 interact epistatically. For a multifactorial disease, such as type 1 diabetes, important information concerning the pathways and mechanisms involved can be gained from examining such interactions between loci, using methods that simultaneously take account of the joint effects of the various underlying genetic components.

Evaluation of an on-farm method to assess colostrum IgG content in sows.

The objective of this work was to investigate the evaluation of swine colostrum immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration using the Brix refractometer. Colostrum samples were collected across all teats, from 124 sows of mixed parities. According to sampling time, three categories were created: samples available from 9 h before the onset of parturition until the first piglet was born were classified as before farrowing; samples collected after the first birth until 4 h later were classified as during farrowing; and finally samples collected from this point until 14 h after parturition, were classified as after farrowing. Samples were drawn and divided into three portions; one was immediately analyzed, a second was refrigerated and the third was frozen at -20°C. Fresh and refrigerated colostrum samples were analyzed at the farm with a Brix refractometer. IgG content of frozen samples was analyzed using a Brix refractometer, with a subset of 42 samples also tested with a commercially available radial immune diffusion (RID) kit. The Brix percentage ranged from 18.3% to 33.2%. Brix percentage repeatability, assessed by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), was very strong (fresh ICC=0.98, refrigerated ICC=0.88 and frozen ICC=0.99). One-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed that storage temperature did not affect BRIX percentage of colostrum IgG (P>0.05). ANOVA results show a significant effect of sampling time on colostrum immunoglobulin concentration, measured with both Brix and RID (Brix: P<0.003; RID: P<0.05). Immunoglobulin G concentration measured by RID ranged from 13.27 to 35.08 mg/ml. Pearson correlation coefficient revealed that Brix percentage was positively correlated (r=0.56, P<0.001) with RID results (regression equation: RID=1.01 (±0.2) Brix -1.94 (±5.66); R 2=0.31). The results of this study indicate that the Brix refractometer provides a simple, fast and inexpensive estimation of colostrum IgG in sows.

Development of a methodology to describe udder conformation in sows.

The aim of this study was to develop a methodology to measure sow udder conformation to use in studying the correlation between udder traits and piglet survival, health and performance. The steps in the investigation were (i) to assess the repeatability of measures, (ii) to determine if there was an important difference between the two sides of the udder, (iii) to assess the extent of variation between sows, and finally (iv) to verify if the measures differ in a systematic way over the days shortly before farrowing. A total of 24 sows were scored for six conformation traits of the udder measured twice a day, every day from the sows' entrance into the farrowing crates until farrowing (1 to 4 days later). The data were recorded from both sides when the sow was lying and when she was standing. The measurements taken were: inter-teat distance within the same row (SAMER; mm between the adjacent teat bases); distance from the base of the teats to the abdominal midline, recorded only in a lying posture (B); distance between the teat base and the adjacent teat on the opposite row, recorded only in a standing posture (OPPR), distance from the base of the teats to the ground (FLOOR); teat length (LEN) measured from the tip to the base, and diameter (DIA) measured at the tip of the teat. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) revealed that most udder conformation traits were highly repeatable (ICC>0.8); only DIA and FLOOR had lower repeatability (ICC=0.7). Measurements did not differ by side. In general, the greatest proportion of variance occurred at the sow level. Traits changed little in the days before farrowing, except for a change 1 day before farrowing in DIA, FLOOR and OPPR. Measures which used anatomical landmarks as the reference point were more reliable than those using the floor of the pen. Udder conformation measures can be used as a reliable phenotype for further study. They can be collected on any day shortly before farrowing, and only from one side and in one posture to save time.

Heritability of udder morphology and colostrum quality traits in swine.

The heritability of udder quality traits, defined as morphology and colostrum IgG concentration at farrowing, was estimated together with the genetic and phenotypic correlations of these traits with other production and reproduction criteria. Udder morphology traits were recorded in 988 Meidam sows and colostrum samples were collected from 528 sows. Teat length, teat diameter (DIA), interteat distance within the same row (SAMER), and teat distance from the abdominal midline (AML) were recorded to the nearest millimeter. For each sow, a record was also made of udder development score (DEV), the proportion of teats oriented perpendicular to the udder, and the proportion of nonfunctional teats. Colostrum IgG concentration was estimated with a Brix refractometer. Heritability of udder morphology traits varied from high ( = 0.46 for teat length and = 0.56 for DIA) to moderate ( = 0.37 for SAMER, = 0.22 for AML, = 0.25 for DEV, = 0.3 for the proportion of nonfunctional teats, = 0.1 for the proportion of teats oriented perpendicular to the udder, and = 0.35 for colostrum IgG concentration). The SAMER was negatively genetically correlated with the number of stillborns (genetic correlation [] = -0.48) and positively genetically correlated with the number of piglets born alive ( = 0.69), with the opposite for the trait AML ( = -0.40 for number of piglets born alive and = 0.40 for stillborns). The highest genetic correlation with productive traits was estimated between AML and ADG during rearing ( = 0.42), although this had a negative phenotypic correlation (; -0.11). Teat length was also moderately correlated with ADG ( = 0.27). Backfat thickness at 100 kg was positively correlated with DIA and the total number of teats present in both rows ( = 0.28 and = 0.36, respectively) and negatively correlated only with DEV ( = -0.22). The same results were found for the phenotypic correlation between backfat thickness at end of test and the total number of teats present in both rows ( = 0.03). Udder quality traits can be included in the breeding goal and appropriately weighted with other important traits in the breeding objectives to enhance maternal performance.

Sources of variation in udder morphology of sows.

This experiment investigated the sources of variation in sow udder morphology. A cross-sectional study of 218 sows (109 Large White × Landrace [LWL] and 109 Meidam [Large White × Meishan {MDM}]) of different parities was conducted using a combination of scores and metric measurements. For each teat, 4 measures were taken: the inter-teat distance within the same row (SAMER), the distance from the base of the teat in the upper row to the abdominal midline (AML), the length of the teat from the tip to the base (LEN), and the diameter at the tip of the teat (DIA). Scores were adopted to define teat orientation (0 = teat not orientated perpendicular to the mammary gland and 1 = teat orientated perpendicular to the mammary gland), teat functionality (1 = milk channel not working, including teats that were blind, inverted, or very damaged; 2 = reduced availability of colostrum; and 3 = perfectly functional), and udder development (1 = not developed to 3 = fully developed). A longitudinal study on a subset of sows ( = 70) investigated how udder morphology changed in consecutive parities. Meidam had shorter teats, which were closer to the abdominal midline than LWL (LEN, < 0.001; AML, < 0.001). In both studies, first and second parity sows had smaller teats (LEN, < 0.001; DIA, < 0.001) than older multiparous sows. Teat position had a significant ( < 0.001) effect on SAMER in both breeds, with less distance between middle teat pairs. The distance from the base of the teats in the upper row to the abdominal midline was shorter in the anterior and posterior teats compared with the middle teat pairs. Teat length was greater in the anterior and middle teats than in the posterior ones, whereas DIA was greater in the middle teats. Teat pair position was associated with teat orientation ( < 0.001) and teat functionality ( < 0.001). Parity was associated with udder development ( < 0.001). Breed, parity, and teat pair position were all significant sources of variation in udder morphology in sows.

Exome sequencing in dementia with Lewy bodies.

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is the second most common form of degenerative dementia. Siblings of affected individuals are at greater risk of developing DLB, but little is known about the underlying genetic basis of the disease. We set out to determine whether mutations in known highly penetrant neurodegenerative disease genes are found in patients with DLB. Whole-exome sequencing was performed on 91 neuropathologically confirmed cases of DLB, supplemented by independent APOE genotyping. Genetic variants were classified using established criteria, and additional neuropathological examination was performed for putative mutation carriers. Likely pathogenic variants previously described as causing monogenic forms of neurodegenerative disease were found in 4.4% of patients with DLB. The APOE ɛ4 allele increased the risk of disease (P=0.0001), conferred a shorter disease duration (P=0.043) and earlier age of death (P=0.0015). In conclusion, although known pathogenic mutations in neurodegenerative disease genes are uncommon in DLB, known genetic risk factors are present in >60% of cases. APOE ɛ4 not only modifies disease risk, but also modulates the rate of disease progression. The reduced penetrance of reported pathogenic alleles explains the lack of a family history in most patients, and the presence of variants previously described as causing frontotemporal dementia suggests a mechanistic overlap between DLB and other neurodegenerative diseases.

The HLA-DPB1--associated component of the IDDM1 and its relationship to the major loci HLA-DQB1, -DQA1, and -DRB1.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) HLA region on chromosome 6p21 contains the major locus of type 1 diabetes (IDDM1). Common allelic variants at the class II HLA-DRB1, -DQA1, and -DQB1 loci account for the major part of IDDM1. Previous studies suggested that other MHC loci are likely to contribute to IDDM1, but determination of their relative contributions and identities is difficult because of strong linkage disequilibrium between MHC loci. One prime candidate is the polymorphic HLA-DPB1 locus, which (with the DPA1 locus) encodes the third class II antigen-presenting molecule. However, the results obtained in previous studies appear to be contradictory. Therefore, we have analyzed 408 white European families (200 from Sardinia and 208 from the U.K.) using a combination of association tests designed to directly compare the effect of DPB1 variation on the relative predisposition of DR-DQ haplotypes, taking into account linkage disequilibrium between DPB1 and the DRB1, DQA1, and DQB1 loci. In these populations, the overall contribution of DPB1 to IDDM1 is small. The main component of the DPB1 contribution to IDDM1 in these populations appears to be the protection associated with DPB1*0402 on DR4-negative haplotypes. We suggest that the HLA-DP molecule itself contributes to IDDM1.

Suggestive evidence for association of human chromosome 18q12-q21 and its orthologue on rat and mouse chromosome 18 with several autoimmune diseases.

Some immune system disorders, such as type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis (MS), and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), share common features: the presence of autoantibodies and self-reactive T-cells, and a genetic association with the major histocompatibility complex. We have previously published evidence, from 1,708 families, for linkage and association of a haplotype of three markers in the D18S487 region of chromosome 18q21 with type 1 diabetes. Here, the three markers were typed in an independent set of 627 families and, although there was evidence for linkage (maximum logarithm of odds score [MLS] = 1.2; P = 0.02), no association was detected. Further linkage analysis revealed suggestive evidence for linkage of chromosome 18q21 to type 1 diabetes in 882 multiplex families (MLS = 2.2; lambdas = 1.2; P = 0.001), and by meta-analysis the orthologous region (also on chromosome 18) is linked to diabetes in rodents (P = 9 x 10(-4)). By meta-analysis, both human chromosome 18q12-q21 and the rodent orthologous region show positive evidence for linkage to an autoimmune phenotype (P = 0.004 and 2 x 10(-8), respectively, empirical P = 0.01 and 2 x 10(-4), respectively). In the diabetes-linked region of chromosome 18q12-q21, a candidate gene, deleted in colorectal carcinoma (DCC), was tested for association with human autoimmunity in 3,380 families with type 1 diabetes, MS, and RA. A haplotype ("2-10") of two newly characterized microsatellite markers within DCC showed evidence for association with autoimmunity (P = 5 x 10(-6)). Collectively, these data suggest that a locus (or loci) exists on human chromosome 18q12-q21 that influences multiple autoimmune diseases and that this association might be conserved between species.

Statistical modeling of interlocus interactions in a complex disease: rejection of the multiplicative model of epistasis in type 1 diabetes.

In general, common diseases do not follow a Mendelian inheritance pattern. To identify disease mechanisms and etiology, their genetic dissection may be assisted by evaluation of linkage in mouse models of human disease. Statistical modeling of multiple-locus linkage data from the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes has previously provided evidence for epistasis between alleles of several Idd (insulin-dependent diabetes) loci. The construction of NOD congenic strains containing selected segments of the diabetes-resistant strain genome allows analysis of the joint effects of alleles of different loci in isolation, without the complication of other segregating Idd loci. In this article, we analyze data from congenic strains carrying two chromosome intervals (a double congenic strain) for two pairs of loci: Idd3 and Idd10 and Idd3 and Idd5. The joint action of both pairs is consistent with models of additivity on either the log odds of the penetrance, or the liability scale, rather than with the previously proposed multiplicative model of epistasis. For Idd3 and Idd5 we would also not reject a model of additivity on the penetrance scale, which might indicate a disease model mediated by more than one pathway leading to beta-cell destruction and development of diabetes. However, there has been confusion between different definitions of interaction or epistasis as used in the biological, statistical, epidemiological, and quantitative and human genetics fields. The degree to which statistical analyses can elucidate underlying biologic mechanisms may be limited and may require prior knowledge of the underlying etiology.

Linkage analysis of candidate genes and gene-gene interactions in chinese hypertensive sib pairs.

Previous studies of hypertension in humans and experimental animal models have identified a number of candidate genes that have since been implicated as possibly contributing to essential hypertension. Among them are the genes encoding angiotensinogen, renin, the beta- and gamma-subunits of the epithelial sodium channel (beta/gamma-ENaC), alpha-adducin, and kallikrein (KLK). To examine the role of possible contribution of these genes in ethnic Chinese, as well as the epistatic interaction among them, we studied a large cohort of hypertensive sib pairs from China. DNA samples from 310 concordant affected sibling pairs with hypertension were tested for linkage with the use of excess allele-sharing algorithms based on genotyping with highly informative GT-repeat microsatellite markers localized in the immediate vicinity of the genes encoding angiotensinogen, renin, beta- and gamma-ENaC, alpha-adducin, and KLK. Affected sib pair analysis conducted according to 3 different methods (Statistical Analysis for Genetic Epidemiology [S.A.G.E. ]/SIBPAL, MAPMAKER/SIBS, and affected pedigree member [APM] methods) revealed no evidence for linkage of any of these genes to primary hypertension in the population studied. Moreover, 2-locus sib pair linkage analyses to test for gene-gene interactions among each possible pair of candidate genes failed to yield any statistically significant results. Our findings provide no support for a significant contribution of the angiotensinogen, renin, beta/gamma-ENaC, alpha-adducin, or KLK genes, alone or in concert, to the pathogenesis of essential hypertension among Chinese. Our results emphasize the possible role of ethnic differences for complex disease genetics, as well as the need for large, well-characterized investigations.

The use of surveillance data and market research to promote physical activity.

Using various types of data sources for assessing and monitoring physical activity behaviors on a population level adds to our ability to explain the relationships between individuals and their surrounding social and physical environments. This article presents the findings from part of a panel presentation on available data sets at the 2001 Cooper Conference on Innovative Approaches to Understanding and Influencing Physical Activity. First, an overview of large national epidemiologic and surveillance data sets is offered, followed by a discussion on the use of market segmentation data to complement more traditional sources of data by adding new dimensions to our understanding of target groups and potential intervention strategies. The relative advantages and disadvantages of using each type of data are also given, as well as recommendations for further use.

A new genome scan for primary nonsyndromic vesicoureteric reflux emphasizes high genetic heterogeneity and shows linkage and association with various genes already implicated in urinary tract development.

Primary vesicoureteric reflux (VUR), the retrograde flow of urine from the bladder toward the kidneys, results from a developmental anomaly of the vesicoureteric valve mechanism, and is often associated with other urinary tract anomalies. It is the most common urological problem in children, with an estimated prevalence of 1-2%, and is a major cause of hypertension in childhood and of renal failure in childhood or adult life. We present the results of a genetic linkage and association scan using 900,000 markers. Our linkage results show a large number of suggestive linkage peaks, with different results in two groups of families, suggesting that VUR is even more genetically heterogeneous than previously imagined. The only marker achieving P < 0.02 for linkage in both groups of families is 270 kb from EMX2. In three sibships, we found recessive linkage to KHDRBS3, previously reported in a Somali family. In another family we discovered sex-reversal associated with VUR, implicating PRKX, for which there was weak support for dominant linkage in the overall data set. Several other candidate genes are suggested by our linkage or association results, and four of our linkage peaks are within copy-number variants recently found to be associated with renal hypodysplasia. Undoubtedly there are many genes related to VUR. Our study gives support to some loci suggested by earlier studies as well as suggesting new ones, and provides numerous indications for further investigations.