Hydroxytyrosol recovery from olive pomace: a simple process using olive mill industrial equipment and membrane technology.

In this work, pilot-scale nanofiltration was used to obtain aqueous solutions rich in hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol from olive oil by-products. A large-scale simple process involving olive mill standard machinery (blender and decanter) was used for the olive pomace pre-treatment with water. The aqueous extract was then directly fed to a nanofiltration unit and concentrated by reverse osmosis. Final concentration factors ranged between 7 and 9 for hydroxytyrosol and between 4 and 7 for tyrosol. The final aqueous solution, obtained as retentate stream of reverse osmosis, was highly concentrated in hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol and their concentrations remained stable over at least 14 months.

Protein Attachment Mechanism for Improved Functionalization of Affinity Monolith Chromatography (AMC).

This work aims at understanding the attachment mechanisms and stability of proteins on a chromatography medium to develop more efficient functionalization methodologies, which can be exploited in affinity chromatography. In particular, the study was focused on the understanding of the attachment mechanisms of bovine serum albumin (BSA), used as a ligand model, and protein G on novel amine-modified alumina monoliths as a stationary phase. Protein G was used to develop a column for antibody purification. The results showed that, at lower protein concentrations (i.e., 0.5 to 1.0 mg·mL-1), protein attachment follows a 1st-order kinetics compatible with the presence of covalent binding between the monolith and the protein. At higher protein concentrations (i.e., up to 10 mg·mL-1), the data preferably fit a 2nd-order kinetics. Such a change reflects a different mechanism in the protein attachment which, at higher concentrations, seems to be governed by physical adsorption resulting in a multilayered protein formation, due to the presence of ligand aggregates. The threshold condition for the prevalence of physical adsorption of BSA was found at a concentration higher than 1.0 mg·mL-1. Based on this result, protein concentrations of 0.7 and 1.0 mg·mL-1 were used for the functionalization of monoliths with protein G, allowing a maximum attachment of 1.43 mg of protein G/g of monolith. This column was then used for IgG binding-elution experiments, which resulted in an antibody attachment of 73.5% and, subsequently, elution of 86%, in acidic conditions. This proved the potential of the amine-functionalized monoliths for application in affinity chromatography.

Feeding strategies to optimize vanillin production by Amycolatopsis sp. ATCC 39116.

The growing consumer demand for natural products led to an increasing interest in vanillin production by biotechnological routes. In this work, the biotechnological vanillin production by Amycolatopsis sp. ATCC 39116 is studied using ferulic acid as precursor, aiming to achieve maximized vanillin productivities. During biotech-vanillin production, the effects of glucose, vanillin and ferulic acid concentrations in the broth proved to be relevant for vanillin productivity. Concerning glucose, its presence in the broth during the production phase avoids vanillin conversion to vanillic acid and, consequently, increases vanillin production. To avoid the accumulation of vanillin up to a toxic concentration level, a multiple-pulse-feeding strategy is implemented, with intercalated vanillin removal from the broth and biomass recovery. This strategy turned out fruitful, leading to 0.46 g L-1 h-1 volumetric productivity of vanillin of and a production yield of 0.69 gvanillin gferulic acid-1, which are among the highest values reported in the literature for non-modified bacteria.

Degradation of Neonicotinoids and Caffeine from Surface Water by Photolysis.

Along with rapid social development, the use of insecticides and caffeine-containing products increases, a trend that is also reflected in the composition of surface waters. This study is focused on the phototreatment of a surface water containing three neonicotinoids (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin) and caffeine. Firstly, the radiation absorption of the target pollutants and the effect of the water matrix components were evaluated. It was observed that the maximum absorption peaks appear at wavelengths ranging from 246 to 274 nm, and that the water matrix did not affect the efficiency of the removal of the target pollutants. It was found that the insecticides were efficiently removed after a very short exposure to UV irradiation, while the addition of hydrogen peroxide was needed for an efficient caffeine depletion. The electrical energy per order was estimated, being the lowest energy required (9.5 kWh m-3 order-1) for the depletion of thiamethoxan by indirect photolysis, and a concentration of hydrogen peroxide of 5 mg dm-3. Finally, a preliminary evaluation on the formation of by-products reveals that these compounds play a key role in the evolution of the ecotoxicity of the samples, and that the application of direct photolysis reduces the concentration of these intermediates.

Biocatalytic CO2 Absorption and Structural Studies of Carbonic Anhydrase under Industrially-Relevant Conditions.

The unprecedently high CO2 levels in the atmosphere evoke the urgent need for development of technologies for mitigation of its emissions. Among the alternatives, the biocatalytic route has been claimed as one of the most promising. In the present work, the carbonic anhydrase from bovine erythrocytes (BCA) was employed as a model enzyme for structural studies in an aqueous phase at alkaline pH, which is typical of large-scale absorption processes under operation. Circular dichroism (CD) analysis revealed a high enzymatic stability at pH 10 with a prominent decrease of the melting temperature above this value. The CO2 absorption capacity of the aqueous solutions were assessed by online monitoring of pressure decay in a stainless-steel cell, which indicated a better performance at pH 10 with a kinetic rate increase of up to 43%, as compared to non-biocatalytic conditions. Even low enzyme concentrations (0.2 mg g-1) proved to be sufficient to improve the overall CO2 capture process performance. The enzyme-enhanced approach of CO2 capture presents a high potential and should be further studied.

Reverse osmosis performance on stripped phenolic sour water treatment - A study on the effect of oil and grease and osmotic pressure.

Technologies for water recycling within oil refineries have been gaining interest at an extensive rate due to the large volume of wastewater generated, high dependency of water and the progressive scarcity of this valuable resource. Phenols are part of a specific class of organic pollutants that have been contributing to a low-quality effluent in oil refineries due to their hazardous nature and strict environmental legislation associated. The reuse of stripped sour water within refineries is often blocked due to its rich phenolic content. This study evaluates the retention of phenols in refinery wastewater through reverse osmosis (RO) at its major source of emission, for water reclamation. The RO membrane selected exhibited rejections of up to 98% of phenols and 99% of both chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC). Permeate quality remained intact despite flux decline caused by phenolic and hydrocarbon adsorption when the oil content, in the feed, reached 771 ppm. The effluent's low conductivity due to lack of salts led to minor osmotic pressure differences (less than 2.5 bar at a volume concentration factor of 3), therefore, showing appealing performances of reverse osmosis filtration. Characterization of all permeates obtained from cross-flow filtration experiments showed COD levels in line with water reuse quality standards for make-up water in cooling processes.

A corrosion evaluation of mild carbon steel in reclaimed refinery stripped sour water.

Reclaiming water for cooling systems in oil refineries has been strongly encouraged over the past years for decreasing the large consumption of fresh water, thus contributing to the efficient use of this valuable resource. In a recent study [Journal of Environmental Management 261 (2020) 110229], some of the authors studied the retention of phenols in refinery wastewater through reverse osmosis (RO) and found rejections of up to 98% of phenols and 99% of both chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC). The permeates complied with the quality standards for make-up water in cooling processes. A missing aspect, important for the water to be used in the oil and gas industry, was the level of corrosivity of the new permeates. In this work the corrosion of mild carbon steel in the permeates and in the original cooling tower make-up water was studied by electrochemical techniques. The corrosion rate of steel in the permeates in aerated conditions was lower (between 0.053 ± 0.006 and 0.123 ± 0.011 mm year-1) than in the make-up water (0.167 ± 0.030 mm year-1), confirming their suitability for replacing make-up water in the cooling towers. The low corrosion of carbon steel was attributed to the low conductivity and absence of oxidizing species in the fluids, compared to fresh water.

Influence of Magnetic Nanoparticles on PISA Preparation of Poly(Methacrylic Acid)-b-Poly(Methylmethacrylate) Nano-Objects.

This article presents the synthesis of poly(methacrylic acid)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) diblock copolymer via polymerization-induced self-assembly in the presence of iron-oxide nanoparticles. Detailed phase diagrams with and without inorganic nanoparticles were constructed. Scanning transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray photometry studies confirme the decoration of the polymeric nanoparticles with the iron-oxide nanoparticles. These hybrid nanoparticles were used to prepare porous thin film membranes by spin coating. Finally, the magneto-responsive properties of the membranes were assessed using water filtration tests in the presence and absence of a magnetic field.

Profiled Ion Exchange Membranes: A Comprehensible Review.

Profiled membranes (also known as corrugated membranes, micro-structured membranes, patterned membranes, membranes with designed topography or notched membranes) are gaining increasing academic and industrial attention and recognition as a viable alternative to flat membranes. So far, profiled ion exchange membranes have shown to significantly improve the performance of reverse electrodialysis (RED), and particularly, electrodialysis (ED) by eliminating the spacer shadow effect and by inducing hydrodynamic changes, leading to ion transport rate enhancement. The beneficial effects of profiled ion exchange membranes are strongly dependent on the shape of their profiles (corrugations/patterns) as well as on the flow rate and salts' concentration in the feed streams. The enormous degree of freedom to create new profile geometries offers an exciting opportunity to improve even more their performance. Additionally, the advent of new manufacturing methods in the membrane field, such as 3D printing, is anticipated to allow a faster and an easier way to create profiled membranes with different and complex geometries.

Solvent-Free Process for the Development of Photocatalytic Membranes.

This work described a new sustainable method for the fabrication of ceramic membranes with high photocatalytic activity, through a simple sol-gel route. The photocatalytic surfaces, prepared at low temperature and under solvent-free conditions, exhibited a narrow pore size distribution and homogeneity without cracks. These surfaces have shown a highly efficient and reproducible behavior for the degradation of methylene blue. Given their characterization results, the microfiltration photocatalytic membranes produced in this study using solvent-free conditions are expected to effectively retain microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi that could then be inactivated by photocatalysis.

Oil refinery hazardous effluents minimization by membrane filtration: An on-site pilot plant study.

Experiments for treating two different types of hazardous oil refinery effluents were performed in order to avoid/minimize their adverse impacts on the environment. First, refinery wastewater was subjected to ultrafiltration using a ceramic membrane, treatment, which did not provide an adequate reduction of the polar oil and grease content below the maximal contaminant level allowed. Therefore the option of reducing the polar oil and grease contamination at its main emission source point in the refinery - the spent caustic originating from the refinery kerosene caustic washing unit - using an alkaline-resistant nanofiltration polymeric membrane treatment was tested. It was found that at a constant operating pressure and temperature, 99.9% of the oil and grease and 97.7% of the COD content were rejected at this emission point. Moreover, no noticeable membrane fouling or permeate flux decrease were registered until a spent caustic volume concentration factor of 3. These results allow for a reuse of the purified permeate in the refinery operations, instead of a fresh caustic solution, which besides the improved safety and environmentally related benefits, can result in significant savings of 1.5 M€ per year at the current prices for the biggest Portuguese oil refinery. The capital investment needed for nanofiltration treatment of the spent caustic is estimated to be less than 10% of that associated with the conventional wet air oxidation treatment of the spent caustic that is greater than 9 M€. The payback period was estimated to be 1.1 years. The operating costs for the two treatment options are similar, but the reuse of the nanofiltration spent caustic concentrate for refinery pH control applications can further reduce the operating expenditures. Overall, the pilot plant results obtained and the process economics evaluation data indicate a safer, environmentally friendly and highly competitive solution offered by the proposed nanofiltration treatment, thus representing a promising alternative to the use of conventional spent caustic treatment units.

Energy saving membrane treatment of high organic load industrial effluents: from lab to pilot scale.

In this study, a nanofiltration unit was implemented at an industrial site, for the treatment of industrial wastewater generated during rubber tubing extrusion. The aim was to reduce the energy input required, while assuring a final effluent quality that meets the requirements of environmental legislation. In a first stage, two membrane process treatments, ultrafiltration and nanofiltration, were evaluated at laboratory scale in order to assess the rejection of pollutants and maximise permeate throughput. Permeate generated from nanofiltration using either an NF90 or an NF270 membrane were shown to meet the effluent discharge requirements (<2000 mg COD/l). The less restrictive membrane, NF270, was chosen for study in a pilot plant at the industrial site, due to its higher membrane permeability. The pilot nanofiltration unit was integrated into the treatment plant operation aiming at optimising the process in terms of the efficiency of pollutant removal with minimal energy input. A feasibility study was performed for this case-study and it was concluded that the energy expenditure of the new process represents only 62% of the current energy consumption of the treatment plant. The proposed solution in this work may be retrofitted to full scale wastewater treatment processes, and may be applicable to industries that employ similar manufacturing processes, and face similar difficulties.

Antineoplastic drugs in urban wastewater: Occurrence, nanofiltration treatment and toxicity screening.

Antineoplastic drugs are pharmaceuticals that have been raising concerns among the scientific community due to: (i) their increasing prescription in the fight against the disease of the twentieth century (cancer); (ii) their recalcitrance to conventional wastewater treatments; (iii) their poor environmental biodegradability; and (iv) their potential risk to any eukaryotic organism. This emerges the urgency in finding solutions to mitigate the entrance and accumulation of these hazardous chemicals in the environment. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been taken into consideration to improve the degradation of antineoplastic drugs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), but the formation of by-products that are more toxic or exhibit a different toxicity profile than the parent drug is frequently reported. This work evaluates the performance of a nanofiltration pilot unit, equipped with a Desal 5DK membrane, in the treatment of real WWTP effluents contaminated (without spiking) with eleven pharmaceuticals, five of which were never studied before. Average removals of 68 ± 23% were achieved for the eleven compounds, with decreasing risks from feed to permeate for aquatic organisms from receiving waterbodies (with the exception of cyclophosphamide, for which a high risk was estimated in the permeate). Aditionally, no significative impact on the growth and germination of three different seeds (Lepidium sativum, Sinapis alba, and Sorghum saccharatum) were determined for permeate matrix in comparison to the control.

Supported ionic liquid membranes for removal of dioxins from high-temperature vapor streams.

Dioxins and dioxin-like chemicals are predominantly produced by thermal processes such as incineration and combustion at concentrations in the range of 10-100 ng of I-TEQ/kg (I-TEQ = international toxic equivalents). In this work, a new approach for the removal of dioxins from high-temperature vapor streams using facilitated supported ionic liquid membranes (SILMs) is proposed. The use of ceramic membranes containing specific ionic liquids, with extremely low volatility, for dioxin removal from incineration sources is proposed owing to their stability at very high temperatures. Supported liquid membranes were prepared by successfully immobilizing the ionic liquids tri-C(8)-C(10)-alkylmethylammonium dicyanamide ([Aliquat][DCA]) and 1-n-octyl-3-methylimidazolium dicyanamide ([Omim][DCA]) inside the porous structure of ceramic membranes. The porous inorganic membranes tested were made of titanium oxide (TiO(2)), with a nominal pore size of 30 nm, and aluminum oxide (Al(2)O(3)), with a nominal pore size of 100 nm. The ionic liquids were characterized, and the membrane performance was assessed for the removal of dioxins. Different materials (membrane pore size, type of ionic liquid, and dioxin) and different operating conditions (temperature and flow rate) were tested to evaluate the efficiency of SILMs for dioxin removal. All membranes prepared were stable at temperatures up to 200 °C. Experiments with model incineration gas were also carried out, and the results obtained validate the potential of using ceramic membranes with immobilized ionic liquids for the removal of dioxins from high-temperature vapor sources.

Comparative Analysis of Bio-Vanillin Recovery from Bioconversion Media Using Pervaporation and Vacuum Distillation.

The increasing demand for natural products has led to biotechnological vanillin production, which requires the recovery of vanillin (and vanillyl alcohol at trace concentrations, as in botanical vanillin) from the bioconversion broth, free from potential contaminants: the substrate and metabolites of bioconversion. This work discusses the recovery and fractionation of bio-vanillin, from a bioconversion broth, by pervaporation and by vacuum distillation, coupled with fractionated condensation. The objective was to recover vanillin free of potential contaminants, with maximised fluxes and selectivity for vanillin against water and minimised energy consumption per mass of vanillin recovered. In vacuum distillation fractionated condensation, adding several consecutive water pulses to the feed increased the percentage of recovered vanillin. In pervaporation-fractionated condensation and vacuum distillation-fractionated condensation processes, it was possible to recover vanillin and traces of vanillyl alcohol without the presence of potential contaminants. Vacuum distillation-experiments presented higher vanillin fluxes than pervaporation fractionated condensation experiments, 2.7 ± 0.1 g·m-2 h-1 and 1.19 ± 0.01 g·m-2 h-1, respectively. However, pervaporation fractionated condensation assures a selectivity of vanillin against water of 4.5 on the pervaporation step (acting as a preconcentration step) and vacuum distillation fractionated condensation requires a higher energy consumption per mass of vanillin recovered when compared with pervaporation- fractionated condensation, 2727 KWh kgVAN-1 at 85 °C and 1361 KWh kgVAN-1 at 75 °C, respectively.

Development and Implementation of MBR Monitoring: Use of 2D Fluorescence Spectroscopy.

The monitoring of a membrane bioreactor (MBR) requires the assessment of both biological and membrane performance. Additionally, the development of membrane fouling and the requirements for frequent membrane cleaning are still major concerns during MBR operation, requiring tight monitoring and system characterization. Transmembrane pressure is usually monitored online and allows following the evolution of membrane performance. However, it does not allow distinguishing the fouling mechanisms occurring in the system or predicting the future behavior of the membrane. The assessment of the biological medium requires manual sampling, and the analyses involve several steps that are labor-intensive, with low temporal resolution, preventing real-time monitoring. Two-dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy is a comprehensive technique, able to assess the system status at real-time without disturbing the biological system. It provides large sets of data (system fingerprints) from which meaningful information can be extracted. Nevertheless, mathematical data analysis (such as machine learning) is essential to properly extract the information contained in fluorescence spectra and correlate it with operating and performance parameters. The potential of 2D fluorescence spectroscopy as a process monitoring tool for MBRs is, therefore, discussed in the present work in view of the actual knowledge and the authors' own experience in this field.

Nannochloropsis sp. Biorefinery: Recovery of Soluble Protein by Membrane Ultrafiltration/Diafiltration.

This work proposes a way to maximize the potential of a Nannochloropsis sp. biorefinery process, through membrane technology, producing an extract enriched in soluble proteins, free from the insoluble protein fraction, with a low lipid content and eliminating the colored chlorophyll-a. This procedure, following the principles of a circular economy approach, allows for the valorization of a stream from the biorefining of Nannochloropsis sp. that, otherwise, would be considered a residue without commercial value. The process proposed minimizes fouling phenomena at the membrane surface, making it possible to achieve high permeate fluxes, thus reducing the need for membrane cleaning and, therefore, contributing to an extended membrane lifetime. Supernatant obtained after centrifugation of a suspension of ruptured Nannochloropsis sp. cells was processed by ultrafiltration using a membrane with a cut-off of 100 kDa MWCO. Two different operating approaches were evaluated-controlled transmembrane pressure and controlled permeate flux-under concentration and diafiltration modes. Ultrafiltration operated in a diafiltration mode, under controlled permeate flux conditions, led to the highest soluble protein recovery (78%) with the highest constant permeate flux (12 L·m-2·h-1) and low membrane fouling.

Predicting the concentration of hazardous phenolic compounds in refinery wastewater-a multivariate data analysis approach.

The present study focused on the methodology for identification of the wastewater stream that presents the highest phenolic impact at a large oil refinery. As a case-study, the oil refinery, Petrogal S.A., in Sines, Portugal, was selected. Firstly, stripped sour water from the cracking complex was identified as the most relevant wastewater stream concerning phenolic emission. Secondly, multivariate data analysis was used, through projection to latent structures (PLS) regression, to find existing correlations between process parameters and phenols content in stripped sour water. The models developed allowed the prediction of phenols concentration with predictive errors down to 20.16 mg/L (corresponding to 8.2% average error), depending on the complexity of the correlation used, and R2 values as high as 0.85. Models were based in input parameters related to fluid catalytic crackers (FCC) feedstock quality, crudemix and steam injected in the catalyst stripper. The studied data analysis approach showed to be useful as a tool to predict the phenolic content in stripped sour water. Such prediction would help improve the wastewater management system, especially the units responsible for phenol degradation. The methodology shown in this work can be used in other refineries containing catalytic cracking complexes, providing a tool which allows the online prediction of phenols in stripped sour water and the identification of the most relevant process parameters. An optimised system at any refinery leads to an improvement in the wastewater quality and costs associated with pollutant discharge; thus, the development of monitoring online tools, as proposed in this work, is essential.

Perspectives of fluorescence spectroscopy for online monitoring in microalgae industry.

Microalgae industrial production is viewed as a solution for alternative production of nutraceuticals, cosmetics, biofertilizers, and biopolymers. Throughout the years, several technological advances have been implemented, increasing the competitiveness of microalgae industry. However, online monitoring and real-time process control of a microalgae production factory still require further development. In this mini-review, non-destructive tools for online monitoring of cellular agriculture applications are described. Still, the focus is on the use of fluorescence spectroscopy to monitor several parameters (cell concentration, pigments, and lipids) in the microalgae industry. The development presented makes it the most promising solution for monitoring up-and downstream processes, different biological parameters simultaneously, and different microalgae species. The improvements needed for industrial application of this technology are also discussed.

Design of Enzyme Loaded W/O Emulsions by Direct Membrane Emulsification for CO2 Capture.

Membrane-based gas separation is a promising unit operation in a low-carbon economy due to its simplicity, ease of operation, reduced energy consumption and portability. A methodology is proposed to immobilise enzymes in stable water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions produced by direct membrane emulsification systems and thereafter impregnated them in the pores of a membrane producing emulsion-based supported liquid membranes. The selected case-study was for biogas (CO2 and CH4) purification. Upon initial CO2 sorption studies, corn oil was chosen as a low-cost and non-toxic bulk phase (oil phase). The emulsions were prepared with Nadir® UP150 P flat-sheet polymeric membranes. The optimised emulsions consisted of 2% Tween 80 (w/w) in corn oil as the continuous phase and 0.5 g.L-1 carbonic anhydrase enzyme with 5% PEG 300 (w/w) in aqueous solution as the dispersed phase. These emulsions were impregnated onto a porous hydrophobic PVDF membrane to prepare a supported liquid membrane for gas separation. Lastly, gas permeability studies indicated that the permeability of CO2 increased by ~15% and that of CH4 decreased by ~60% when compared to the membrane without carbonic anhydrase. Thus, a proof-of-concept for enhancement of CO2 capture using emulsion-based supported liquid membrane was established.