The role of provincial health administration in supporting district health management teams in the Democratic Republic of Congo: eliciting an initial programme theory of a realist evaluation.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, the Ministry of Health in the Democratic Republic of Congo designed a strategy to strengthen the health system by developing health districts. This strategy included a reform of the provincial health administration to provide effective technical support to district health management teams in terms of leadership and management. The provincial health teams were set up in 2014, but few studies have been done on how, for whom, and under what circumstances their support to the districts works. We report on the development of an initial programme theory that is the first step of a realist evaluation seeking to address this knowledge gap. METHODS: To inform the initial programme theory, we collected data through a scoping review of primary studies on leadership or management capacity building of district health managers in sub-Saharan Africa, a review of policy documents and interviews with the programme designers. We then conducted a two-step data analysis: first, identification of intervention features, context, actors, mechanisms and outcomes through thematic content analysis, and second, formulation of intervention-context-actor-mechanism-outcome (ICAMO) configurations using a retroductive approach. RESULTS: We identified six ICAMO configurations explaining how effective technical support (i.e. personalised, problem-solving centred and reflection-stimulating) may improve the competencies of the members of district health management teams by activating a series of mechanisms (including positive perceived relevance of the support, positive perceived credibility of provincial health administration staff, trust in provincial health administration staff, psychological safety, reflexivity, self-efficacy and perceived autonomy) under specific contextual conditions (including enabling learning environment, integration of vertical programmes, competent public health administration staff, optimal decision space, supportive work conditions, availability of resources and absence of negative political influences). CONCLUSIONS: We identified initial ICAMO configurations that explain how provincial health administration technical support for district health management teams is expected to work, for whom and under what conditions. These ICAMO configurations will be tested in subsequent empirical studies.

Understanding the mix of services for mental health care in urban DR Congo: a qualitative descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: Mental health workers (MHWs) are exposed to conflicts of competence daily when performing tasks related to the provision of mental health services. This may be linked to a lack of understanding of their tasks as caregivers and providers. Furthermore, in most low-income settings, it is unclear how the available services are organized and coordinated to provide mental health care. To understand the above, this study aimed to identify the current mix of services for mental health care in the urban Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). METHODS: A qualitative descriptive study was carried out in Lubumbashi from February to April 2021. We conducted 7 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 74 key informants (family members, primary care physicians, etc.) and 13 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with key informants (traditional healers, psychiatrists, etc.). We performed a qualitative content analysis, guided by an analytical framework, that led to the development of a comprehensive inventory of MHWs from the household level to specialized facilities, exploring their tasks in care delivery, identifying existing services, and defining their current organization. RESULTS: Analysis of transcripts from the FGDs and IDIs showed that traditional healers and family caregivers are the leading providers in Lubumbashi. The exploration of the tasks performed by MHWs revealed that lifestyle, traditional therapies, psychotherapy, and medication are the main types of care offered/advised to patients. Active informal caregivers do not currently provide care corresponding to their competencies. The rare mental health specialists available do not presently recognize the tasks of primary care providers and informal caregivers in care delivery, and their contribution is considered marginal. We identified five types of services: informal services, traditional therapy services, social services, primary care services, and psychiatric services. Analyses pointed out an inversion of the ideal mix of these services. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show a suboptimal mix of services for mental health and point to a clear lack of collaboration between MHWs. There is an urgent need to clearly define the tasks of MHWs, build the capacity of nonspecialists, shift mental health-related tasks to them, and raise awareness about collaborative care approaches.

Intégration de la santé mentale dans les services de soins de santé primaires en République démocratique du Congo.

OBJECTIVE: The study aims to document the experience of integrating a mental health care package into the general health care system of Lubero district in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) between 2011 and 2015, and more specifically, the effects of this integration on the access to and use of health services offering mental health care. METHOD: This is a retrospective study using a case study design. Data collected from different project documents and an analytic review of the official reports of the Ministry of Public Health were used for an analysis of the results of the integration. RESULTS: The results indicate that 3,941 patients with mental health problems used the care offered at the health centers and the district hospital between 2012 and 2015. In 2015, the average utilization rate of curative care in health centers for mental health problems was 7 new cases/1,000 inhabitants/year. The majority of these patients were treated on an outpatient basis, at primary health care level. DISCUSSION: Our study shows that it is possible to integrate mental health into existing general health services in the DRC. Nevertheless, the major problems in terms of access and use of basic care in the Lubero district indicate that the success of such an integration depends on the quality of the health system in place and the involvement of a wide range of both health and non-health actors, including key people within communities.

Integration of mental health care in private not-for-profit health centres in Guinea, West Africa: a systemic entry point towards the delivery of more patient-centred care?

BACKGROUND: Patient-centred care is an essential component of quality of health care. We hypothesize that integration of a mental health care package into versatile first-line health care services can strengthen patient participation, an important dimension of patient-centred care. The objective of this study is to analyse whether consultations conducted by providers in facilities that integrated mental health care score higher in terms of patient participation. METHODS: This study was conducted in Guinea in 12 not-for-profit health centres, 4 of which had integrated a mental health care package (MH+) and 8 had not (MH-). The study involved 450 general curative consultations (175 in MH+ and 275 in MH- centres), conducted by 18 care providers (7 in MH+ and 11 in MH- centres). Patients were interviewed after the consultation on how they perceived their involvement in the consultation, using the Patient Participation Scale (PPS). The providers completed a self-administered questionnaire on their perception of patient's involvement in the consultation. We compared scores of the PPS between MH+ and MH- facilities and between patients and providers. RESULTS: The mean PPS score was 24.21 and 22.54 in MH+ and MH- health centres, respectively. Participation scores depended on both care providers and the health centres they work in. The patients consulting an MH+ centre were scoring higher on patient participation score than the ones of an MH- centre (adjusted odds ratio of 4.06 with a 95% CI of 1.17-14.10, p = 0.03). All care providers agreed they understood the patients' concerns, and patients shared this view. All patients agreed they wanted to be involved in the decision-making concerning their treatment; providers, however, were reluctant to do so. CONCLUSION: Integrating a mental health care package into versatile first-line health services can promote more patient-centred care.

Context matters: a qualitative study of the practicalities and dilemmas of delivering integrated chronic care within primary and secondary care settings in a rural Malawian district.

BACKGROUND: With the increasing double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in sub-Saharan Africa, health systems require new approaches to organise and deliver services for patients requiring long-term care. There is increasing recognition of the need to integrate health services, with evidence supporting integration of HIV and NCD services through the reorganisation of health system inputs, across system levels. This study investigates current practices of delivering and implementing integrated care for chronically-ill patients in rural Malawi, focusing on the primary level. METHODS: A qualitative study on chronic care in Phalombe district conducted between April 2016 and May 2017, with a sub-analysis performed on the data following a document analysis to understand the policy context and how integration is conceptualised in Malawi; structured observations in five of the 15 district health facilities, selected purposively to represent different levels of care (primary and secondary), and ownership (private and public). Fifteen interviews with healthcare providers and managers, purposively selected from the above facilities. Meetings with five non-governmental organisations to study their projects and support towards chronic care in Phalombe. Data were analysed using a thematic approach and managed in NVivo. RESULTS: Our study found that, while policies supported integration of various disease-specific programmes at point of care, integration efforts on the ground were severely hampered by human and health resource challenges e.g. inadequate consultation rooms, erratic supplies especially for NCDs, and an overstretched health workforce. There were notable achievements, though most prominent at the secondary level e.g. the establishment of a combined NCD clinic, initiating NCD screening within HIV services, and initiatives for integrated information systems. CONCLUSION: In rural Malawi, major impediments to integrated care provision for chronically-ill patients include the frail state of primary healthcare services and sub-optimal NCD care at the lowest healthcare level. In pursuit of integrative strategies, opportunities lie in utilising and expanding community-based outreach strategies offering multi-disease screening and care with strong referral linkages; careful task delegation and role realignment among care teams supported with proper training and incentive mechanisms; and collaborative partnership between public and private sector actors to expand the resource-base and promoting cross-programme initiatives.

Action research and health system strengthening: the case of the health sector support programme in Mauritania, West Africa.

BACKGROUND: Access to qualitative and equitable healthcare is a major challenge in Mauritania. In order to support the country's efforts, a health sector strengthening programme was set up with participatory action research at its core. Reinforcing a health system requires a customised and comprehensive approach to face the complexity inherent to health systems. Yet, limited knowledge is available on how policies could enhance the performance of the system and how multi-stakeholder efforts could give rise to changes in health policy. We aimed to analyse the ongoing participatory action research and, more specifically, see in how far action research as an embedded research approach could contribute to strengthening health systems. METHODS: We adopted a single-case study design, based on two subunits of analysis, i.e., two selected districts. Qualitative data were collected by analysing country and programme documents, conducting 12 semi-structured interviews and performing participatory observations. Interviewees were selected based on their current position and participation in the programme. The data analysis was designed to address the objectives of the study, but evolved according to emerging insights and through triangulation and identification of emergent and/or recurrent themes along the process. RESULTS: An evaluation of the progress made in the two districts indicates that continuous capacity-building and empowerment efforts through a participative approach have been key elements to enhance dialogue between, and ownership of, the actors at the local health system level. However, the strong hierarchical structure of the Mauritanian health system and its low level of decentralisation constituted substantial barriers to innovation. Other constraints were sociocultural and organisational in nature. Poor work ethics due to a weak environmental support system played an important role. While aiming for an alignment between the flexible iterative approach of action research and the prevailing national linear planning process is quite challenging, effects on policy formulation and implementation were not observed. An adequate time frame, the engagement of proactive leaders, maintenance of a sustained dialogue and a pragmatic, flexible approach could further facilitate the process of change. CONCLUSION: Our study showcases that the action research approach used in Mauritania can usher local and national actors towards change within the health system strengthening programme when certain conditions are met. An inclusive, participatory approach generates dynamics of engagement that can facilitate ownership and strengthen capacity. Continuous evaluation is needed to measure how these processes can further develop and presume a possible effect at policy level.

Challenges in primary care for diabetes and hypertension: an observational study of the Kolar district in rural India.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases have emerged as the leading cause of death globally, and 20% of Indians are estimated to suffer from a chronic condition. Care for chronic diseases poses a major public health challenge, especially when health care delivery has been geared traditionally towards acute care. In this study, we aimed to better understand how primary care for diabetes and hypertension is currently organised in first-line health facilities in rural India, and propose evidence-based ways forward for strengthening local health systems to address chronic problems. METHODS: We used qualitative and quantitative methods to gain insight into how care is organised and how patients and providers manage within this delivery system. We conducted in-depth interviews with the medical doctors working in three private clinics and in three public primary health centres. We also interviewed 24 patients with chronic diseases receiving care in the two sub-sectors. Non-participant observations and facility assessments were performed to triangulate the findings from the interviews. RESULTS: The current delivery system has many problems impeding the delivery of quality care for chronic conditions. In both the public and private facilities studied, the care processes are very doctor-centred, with little room for other health centre staff. Doctors face very high workloads, especially in the public sector, jeopardising proper communication with patients and adequate counselling. In addition, the health information system is fragmented and provides little or no support for patient follow-up and self-management. The patient is largely left on their own in trying to make sense of their condition and in finding their way in a complex and scattered health care landscape. CONCLUSIONS: The design and organisation of care for persons with chronic diseases in India needs to be rethought. More space and responsibility should be given to the primary care level, and relatively less to the more specialised hospital level. Furthermore, doctors should consider delegating some of their tasks to other staff in the first-line health facility to significantly reduce their workload and increase time available for communication. The health information system needs to be adapted to better ensure continuity of care and support self-management by patients.

Distribution and quality of emergency obstetric care service delivery in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: it is time to improve regulatory mechanisms.

BACKGROUND: The Demographic and Health Survey 2013-14 indicated that the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is still challenged by high maternal and neonatal mortality. The aim of this study was to assess the availability, quality and equity of emergency obstetric care (EmOC) in the DRC. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of 1,568 health facilities selected by multistage random sampling in 11 provinces of the DRC was conducted in 2014. Data were collected through interviews, document reviews, and direct observation of service delivery. Collected data included availability, quality, and equity of EmOC depending on the location (urban vs. rural), administrative identity, type of facility, and province. Associations between variables were tested by Pearson's chi-squared test using an alpha significance level of 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 1,555 health facilities (99.2%) were surveyed. Of these, 9.1% provided basic EmOC and 2.9% provided comprehensive EmOC. The care was unequally distributed across the provinces and urban vs. rural areas; it was more available in urban areas, with the provinces of Kinshasa and Nord-Kivu being favored compared to other provinces. Caesarean section and blood transfusions were provided by health centers (6.5 and 9.0%, respectively) and health posts (2.3 and 2.3%, respectively), despite current guidelines disallowing the practice. None of the facilities provided quality EmOC, mainly due to the lack of proper standards and guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: The distribution and quality of EmOC are problematic. The lack of regulation and monitoring appears to be a key contributing factor. We recommend the Ministry of Health go beyond merely granting funds, and also ensure the establishment and monitoring of appropriate standard operating procedures for providers.

Patient-provider perspectives on self-management support and patient empowerment in chronic care: A mixed-methods study in a rural sub-Saharan setting.

AIM: To explore how provision of self-management support to chronically-ill patients in resource-limited settings contributes to patient empowerment in chronic care. DESIGN: Concurrent descriptive mixed methods research. METHODS: A survey of 140 patients with chronic conditions administered at four time-points in 12 months. We conducted 14 interviews and four focus-group discussions with patients (N = 31); 13 healthcare provider interviews; and observations of four patient-support group meetings. Data were collected between April 2016 - May 2017 in rural Malawi. Qualitative data were analysed using a thematic approach and descriptive statistical analysis performed on survey data. RESULTS: Healthcare professionals facilitated patient empowerment through health education, although literacy levels and environmental factors affected self-management guidance. Information exchanged during patient-provider interactions varied and discussions centred around medical aspects and health promoting behaviour. Less than 40% of survey patients prepared questions prior to clinic consultations. Health education was often unstructured and delegated to non-physician providers, mostly untrained in chronic care. Patients accessed psychosocial support from volunteer-led community home-based care programmes. HIV support-groups regularly interacted with peers and practical skills exchanged in a supportive environment, reinforcing patient's self-mangement competence and proactiveness in health care. CONCLUSION: For optimal self-management, reforms at inter-personal and organizational level are needed including; mutual patient-provider collaboration, diversifying access to self-management support resources and restructuring patient support-groups to cater to diverse chronic conditions. IMPACT: Our study provides insights and framing of self-management support and empowerment for patients in long-term care in sub-Saharan Africa. Lessons drawn could feed into designing and delivering responsive chronic care interventions.

[Integrating mental health in community health centers in Guinea]. / Intégration de la santé mentale dans les centres de santé communautaires en Guinée Conakry.

This study investigates effects of integrating mental health on staff attitudes in 5 community health centers in Guinea: more specifically, on destigmatizing mental health problems and on adopting patient-centered care approaches. It is based on semi-structured interviews with 27 health workers from health centers having integrated mental health care (Santé Mentale +, with acronym SM+); and, as a comparison group, with 11 health workers working in facilities that do not have integrated mental health (SM-). Attitudinal change among SM+ health workers contrasts sharply with the stigmatizing discourse of SM- health workers. The former, strengthened by their successes in treating mental health patients, have overcome their fears and developed positive attitudes vis-à-vis mental health patients. Furthermore, part of the SM+ workers discovered and adopted a patient-centered approach to care, whereas others remained confined to a biomedical logic. A facilitating factor of change has been the organization of an in-service training program (joint consultations, teamwork and community action) taking into account health workers' emotional needs and providing patient-centered role models. However, this training set-up only functioned optimally in the non-bureaucratic organizational context of a community health center staffed with a stable and qualified team. Our study indicates that, beyond improved access to psychiatric care, integrating mental health in health centers can also reinforce the quality of the therapeutic relationship in general. The contents and modalities of the training program in mental health are crucial; but so is the way the health services are being organized.

A critique of the Uganda district league table using a normative health system performance assessment framework.

BACKGROUND: In 2003 the Uganda Ministry of Health (MoH) introduced the District League Table (DLT) to track district performance. This review of the DLT is intended to add to the evidence base on Health Systems Performance Assessment (HSPA) globally, with emphasis on Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs), and provide recommendations for adjustments to the current Ugandan reality. METHODS: A normative HSPA framework was used to inform the development of a Key Informant Interview (KII) tool. Thirty Key Informants were interviewed, purposively selected from the Ugandan health system on the basis of having developed or used the DLT. KII data and information from published and grey literature on the Uganda health system was analyzed using deductive analysis. RESULTS: Stakeholder involvement in the development of the DLT was limited, including MoH officials and development partners, and a few district technical managers. Uganda policy documents articulate a conceptually broad health system whereas the DLT focuses on a healthcare system. The complexity and dynamism of the Uganda health system was insufficiently acknowledged by the HSPA framework. Though DLT objectives and indicators were articulated, there was no conceptual reference model and lack of clarity on the constitutive dimensions. The DLT mechanisms for change were not explicit. The DLT compared markedly different districts and did not identify factors behind observed performance. Uganda lacks a designated institutional unit for the analysis and presentation of HSPA data, and there are challenges in data quality and range. CONCLUSIONS: The critique of the DLT using a normative model supported the development of recommendation for Uganda district HSPA and provides lessons for other LMICs. A similar approach can be used by researchers and policy makers elsewhere for the review and development of other frameworks. Adjustments in Uganda district HSPA should consider: wider stakeholder involvement with more district managers including political, administrative and technical; better anchoring within the national health system framework; integration of the notion of complexity in the design of the framework; and emphasis on facilitating district decision-making and learning. There is need to improve data quality and range and additional approaches for data analysis and presentation.

[Stigmatisation of mental illness by medical students in Conakry, Guinea]. / Stigmatisation de la maladie mentale par les étudiants en médecine en Guinée, Conakry.

INTRODUCTION: Stigmatisation of mental illness constitutes a major problem in the development of mental healthcare programs, especially when it originates from health professionals themselves. The aim of this research is to investigate possible attitudes of stigmatisation among first and final year medical students registered at the University of Conakry faculty of medicine in Guinea-Conakry (West Africa). METHODS: Focus group discussions identified students' attitudes and perceptions in relation to mental illness, their explanatory models, their opinions concerning traditional and modern therapeutic practices with regard to mental illness, and their interest to possibly incorporate psychiatry in their future medical practice. RESULTS: Many students explicitly regret the stigmatisation of mental health patients, but nevertheless share the general population's prevailing attitudes of discrimination. The dominant stereotype of mental illness is that of madness, although final year medical students describe a more diverse spectrum of mental health problems. There is strong adherence to secular occult explanations of mental illness and advocacy for traditional medicine in addressing these illnesses, including among final year medical students. DISCUSSION: No student would opt for psychiatry as a specialisation, although some expressed interest in integrating psychiatry into their future medical practice. However, this research indicates that stigmatising attitudes are not cut in stone. Under the impetus of specific teaching programmes, attitudes can evolve to create room for tolerance and compassion.

Effects of demand-side incentives in improving the utilisation of delivery services in Oyam District in northern Uganda: a quasi-experimental study.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the effects and financial costs of two interventions with respect to utilisation of institutional deliveries and other maternal health services in Oyam District in Uganda. METHODS: We conducted a quasi-experimental study involving intervention and comparable/control sub-counties in Oyam District for 12 months (January-December 2014). Participants were women receiving antenatal care, delivery and postnatal care services. We evaluated two interventions: the provision of (1) transport vouchers to women receiving antenatal care and delivering at two health centres (level II) in Acaba sub-county, and (2) baby kits to women who delivered at Ngai Health Centre (level III) in Ngai sub-county. The study outcomes included service coverage of institutional deliveries, four antenatal care visits, postnatal care, and the percentage of women 'bypassing' maternal health services inside their resident sub-counties. We calculated the effect of each intervention on study outcomes using the difference in differences analysis. We calculated the cost per institutional delivery and the cost per unit increment in institutional deliveries for each intervention. RESULTS: Overall, transport vouchers had greater effects on all four outcomes, whereas baby kits mainly influenced institutional deliveries. The absolute increase in institutional deliveries attributable to vouchers was 42.9%; the equivalent for baby kits was 30.0%. Additionally, transport vouchers increased the coverage of four antenatal care visits and postnatal care service coverage by 60.0% and 49.2%, respectively. 'Bypassing' was mainly related to transport vouchers and ranged from 7.2% for postnatal care to 11.9% for deliveries. The financial cost of institutional delivery was US$9.4 per transport voucher provided, and US$10.5 per baby kit. The incremental cost per unit increment in institutional deliveries in the transport-voucher system was US$15.9; the equivalent for the baby kit was US$30.6. CONCLUSION: The transport voucher scheme effectively increased utilisation of maternal health services whereas the baby-kit scheme was only effective in increasing institutional deliveries. The transport vouchers were less costly than the baby kits in the promotion of institutional deliveries. Such incentives can be sustainable if the Ministry of Health integrates them in the health system.

An in-depth investigation of the causes of persistent low membership of community-based health insurance: a case study of the mutual health organisation of Dar Naïm, Mauritania.

BACKGROUND: Persistent low membership is observed in many community-based health insurance (CBHI) schemes in Africa. Causes for low membership have been identified and solutions suggested, but this did not result in increased membership. In this case study of the mutual health organisation of Dar Naïm in Mauritania we explore the underlying drivers that may explain why membership continued to stagnate although several plans for change had been designed. METHODS: We used a systems approach focussed on processes, underlying dynamics and complex interactions that produce the outcomes, to delve into 10 years of data collected between 2003 and 2012. We used qualitative research methods to analyse the data and interpret patterns. RESULTS: Direct causes of stagnation and possible solutions had been identified in the early years of operations, but most of the possible solutions were not implemented. A combination of reasons explains why consecutive action plans were not put into practice, showing the complexity of implementation and the considerable management capacity required, as well as the challenges of integrating a novel organisational structure into exiting social structures. CONCLUSIONS: For any CBHI project aiming at high membership, skilled professional management seems essential, with capacity to question and adapt routine procedures and interpret interactions within the wider society. Countries that include community-based health insurance in their strategic plan towards universal coverage will have to pay more attention to management capacity and the minutiae of implementation.

Integrating acute malnutrition interventions into national health systems: lessons from Niger.

BACKGROUND: Since 2007, integrated care of acute malnutrition has been promoted in Niger, a country affected by high burden of disease. This policy change aimed at strengthening capacity and ownership to manage the condition. Integration was neither defined nor planned but assumed to have been achieved. This paper studied the level and progress of integration of acute malnutrition interventions into key health system functions. METHODS: The qualitative study method involved literature searches on acute malnutrition interventions for children under 5 in low-income countries to develop a matrix of integration. Integration indicators defined three levels of integration of acute malnutrition interventions into health system functions-full, partial or none. Indicators of health services and health status were added to describe health system improvements. Data from qualitative and quantitative studies conducted in Niger between 2007 and 2013 were used to measure the indicators for the years under study. RESULTS: Results showed a mosaic of integration levels across key health system functions. Four indicators showed full integration, 22 showed partial integration and three showed no integration. Two-thirds of system functions showed progress in assimilating acute malnutrition interventions, while six persistently stagnated over time. There was variation within and across health system domains, with governance and health information functions scoring highest and financing lowest. Steady improvements were noted in geographic coverage, access and under-5 mortality risk. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided useful information to inform policy makers and guide strategic planning to improve integration of acute malnutrition interventions in Niger. The proposed method of assessing the extent of integration and monitoring progress may be adapted and used in Niger and other low-income countries that are integrating or intending to integrate acute malnutrition interventions.

Improving access to medicines for non-communicable diseases in rural India: a mixed methods study protocol using quasi-experimental design.

BACKGROUND: India has the distinction of financing its healthcare mainly through out-of-pocket expenses by individual families contributing to catastrophic health expenditure and impoverishment. Nearly 70 % of the expenditure is on medicines purchased at private pharmacies. Patients with chronic ailments are especially affected, as they often need lifelong medicines. Over the past years in India, there have been several efforts to improve drug availability at government primary health centres. In this study, we aim to understand health system factors that affect utilisation and access to generic medicines for people with non-communicable diseases. METHODS: This study aims to understand if (and how) a package of interventions targeting primary health centres and community participation platforms affect utilisation and access to generic medicines for people with non-communicable diseases in the current district context in India. This study will employ a quasi-experimental design and a qualitative theory-driven approach. PHCs will be randomly assigned to one of three arms of the intervention. In one arm, PHCs will receive inputs to optimise service delivery for non-communicable diseases, while the second arm will receive an additional package of interventions to strengthen community participation platforms for improving non-communicable disease care. The third arm will be the control. We will conduct household and facility surveys, before and after the intervention and will estimate the effect of the intervention by difference-in-difference analysis. Sample size for measuring effects was calculated based on obtaining at least 30 households for each primary health centre spread across three distance-based clusters. Primary outcomes include availability and utilisation of medicines at primary health centres and out-of-pocket expenditure for medicines by non-communicable disease households. Focus group discussions with patients and in-depth interviews with health workers will also be conducted. Qualitative and process documentation data will be used to explain how the intervention could have worked. DISCUSSION: By taking into consideration several health system building blocks and trying to understand how they interact, our study aims to generate evidence for health planners on how to optimise health services to improve access to medicines. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Protocol registered on Clinical Trials Registry of India with registration identifier number CTRI/2015/03/005640 on 17(th) March 2015.

Use of mobile phone consultations during home visits by Community Health Workers for maternal and newborn care: community experiences from Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Home visits by Community Health Workers [In Uganda Community Health Workers are given the collective term of Village Health Teams (VHTs). Hereafter referred to as VHTs] is recommended to improve maternal and newborn care. We investigated perceived maternal and newborn benefits of home visits made by VHTs, combined with mobile phone consultations with professional health workers for advice. METHODS: A qualitative study was conducted in Masindi and Kiryandongo districts, Uganda, in December-2013 to March-2014. Study participants were drawn from the intervention arm of a randomised community-intervention trial. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 prenatal and 16 postnatal women who were visited by VHTs; 5 group discussions and 16 key informant interviews were held with VHTs and 10 Key Informant Interviews with professional health workers. Data were analysed using latent content analysis techniques. RESULTS: Majority women and VHTs contend that the intervention improved access to maternal and newborn information; reduced costs of accessing care and facilitated referral. Women, VHTs and professional health workers acknowledged that the intervention induced attitudinal change among women and VHTs towards adapting recommended maternal and newborn care practices. Mobile phone consultations between VHTs and professional health workers were considered to reinforce VHT knowledge on maternal newborn care and boosted the social status of VHTs in community. A minority of VHTs perceived the implementation of recommended maternal and newborn care practices as difficult. Some professional health workers did not approve of the transfer of promotional maternal and newborn responsibility to VHTs. For a range of reasons, a number of professional health workers were not always available on phone or at the health centre to address VHT concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that home visits made by VHTs for maternal and newborn care are reasonably well accepted. Our study highlights potential benefits of combining home visits with phone consultations between VHTs and professional health workers. However, the challenge of attitudinal change among VHTs towards certain strongly culturally-embedded behavioural post-partum practices, resistance from part of the professional health workforce to collaborate with VHTs and the problematic availability of professional health workers are important systemic problems that need to be addressed. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials NCT02084680. Registered 14 March 2014.

Availability, utilisation and quality of maternal and neonatal health care services in Karamoja region, Uganda: a health facility-based survey.

BACKGROUND: Maternal mortality is persistently high in Uganda. Access to quality emergency obstetrics care (EmOC) is fundamental to reducing maternal and newborn deaths and is a possible way of achieving the target of the fifth millennium development goal. Karamoja region in north-eastern Uganda has consistently demonstrated the nation's lowest scores on key development and health indicators and presents a substantial challenge to Uganda's stability and poverty eradication ambitions. The objectives of this study were: to establish the availability of maternal and neonatal healthcare services at different levels of health units; to assess their utilisation; and to determine the quality of services provided. METHODS: A cross sectional study of all health facilities in Napak and Moroto districts was conducted in 2010. Data were collected by reviewing clinical records and registers, interviewing staff and women attending antenatal and postnatal clinics, and by observation. Data were summarized using frequencies and percentages and EmOC indicators were calculated. RESULTS: There were gaps in the availability of essential infrastructure, equipment, supplies, drugs and staff for maternal and neonatal care particularly at health centres (HCs). Utilisation of the available antenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal care services was low. In addition, there were gaps in the quality of care received across these services. Two hospitals, each located in the study districts, qualified as comprehensive EmOC facilities. The number of EmOC facilities per 500,000 population was 3.7. None of the HCs met the criteria for basic EmOC. Assisted vaginal delivery and removal of retained products were the most frequently missing signal functions. Direct obstetric case fatality rate was 3%, the met need for EmOC was 9.9%, and 1.7% of expected deliveries were carried out by caesarean section. CONCLUSIONS: To reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality in Karamoja region, there is a need to increase the availability and the accessibility of skilled birth care, address the low utilisation of maternity services and improve the quality of care rendered. There is also a need to improve the availability and accessibility of EmOC services, with particular attention to basic EmOC.

[Does the National HIV /AIDS Control programme provide support for district hospitals in Cameroon?]. / Le programme national de lutte contre le VIH/sida renforce-t-il les hôpitaux de district au Cameroun?

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the national HIV/AIDS control programme on district hospitals in Cameroon. A multiple case study was conducted in two district hospitals- one public and one faith-based. Data were collected by document review, semi-structured interviews and observation of managerial processes and health care delivery. Programme interventions result in a series of positive and negative effects on the functioning of district hospitals and local health systems. High input and support of staff skills were observed for antiretroviral therapy and the management of opportunistic infections. However, the impact of the programme on the stewardship function is problematic. The low implication of district management teams in the implementation of HIV /AIDS activities reduces their structural capacity to run the local health systems. Programme and health system managers failed to take advantage of opportunities to develop synergies between the HIV/AIDS programme and local health systems. The HIV/AIDS programme weakens the systemic and structural capacity of local health systems. Managers of both programmes and general health systems should analyse and adapt their interventions in order to effective' strengthen health systems. One of the research questions is to understand why health system stakeholders do not seize opportunities to develop synergies between programmes and the general system and to strengthen health systems.

Malaria treatment policy change in Uganda: what role did evidence play?

BACKGROUND: Although increasing attention is being paid to knowledge translation (KT), research findings are not being utilized to the desired extent. The present study explores the role of evidence, barriers, and factors facilitating the uptake of evidence in the change in malaria treatment policy in Uganda, building on previous work in Uganda that led to the development of a middle range theory (MRT) outlining the main facilitatory factors for KT. Application of the MRT to a health policy case will contribute to refining it. METHODS: Using a case study approach and mixed methods, perceptions of respondents on whether evidence was available, had been considered and barriers and facilitatory factors to the uptake of evidence were explored. In addition, the respondents' rating of the degree of consistency between the policy decision and available evidence was assessed. Data collection methods included key informant interviews and document review. Qualitative data were analysed using content thematic analysis, whereas quantitative data were analysed using Excel spreadsheets. The two data sets were eventually triangulated. RESULTS: Evidence was used to change the malaria treatment policy, though the consistency between evidence and policy decisions varied along the policy development cycle. The availability of high-quality and contextualized evidence, including effective dissemination, Ministry of Health institutional capacity to lead the KT process, intervention of the WHO and a regional professional network, the existence of partnerships for KT with mutual trust and availability of funding, tools, and inputs to implement evidence, were the most important facilitatory factors that enhanced the uptake of evidence. Among the barriers that had to be overcome were resistance from implementers, the health system capacity to implement evidence, and financial sustainability. CONCLUSION: The results agree with facilitatory factors identified in the earlier developed MRT, though additional factors emerged. These results refine the earlier MRT stating that high-quality and contextualized evidence will be taken up in policies, leading to evidence-informed policies when the MoH leads the KT process, partnerships are in place for KT, the WHO and regional professional bodies play a role, and funding, tools, and required inputs for implementing evidence are available.