Visceral obesity assessed by computed tomography predicts cardiovascular events in chronic kidney disease patients.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although there is emerging evidence that excess visceral fat is associated with a cluster of cardiometabolic abnormalities in these patients, the impact of visceral obesity evaluated by a gold-standard method on future outcomes has not been studied. We aimed to investigate whether visceral obesity assessed by computed tomography was able to predict cardiovascular events in CKD patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: We studied 113 nondialyzed CKD patients [60% men; 31% diabetics; age 55.3 ± 11.3 years; body mass index (BMI) 27.2 ± 5.3 kg/m(2); estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) 33.7 ± 13.6 ml/min/1.73 m(2)]. Visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fat were assessed by computed tomography at L4-L5. Visceral to subcutaneous fat ratio >0.55 (highest tertile cut-off) was defined as visceral obesity. Cardiovascular events including acute myocardial infarction, angina, arrhythmia, uncontrolled blood pressure, stroke and cardiac failure were recorded during 24 months. Cardiovascular events were 3-fold higher in patients with visceral obesity than in those without visceral obesity. The Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated that patients with visceral obesity had shorter cardiovascular event-free time than those without visceral obesity (P = 0.021). In the univariate Cox analysis, visceral obesity was associated with higher risk of cardiovascular events (hazard ratio = 3.4; 95% confidence interval = 1.1-10.5; P = 0.03). The prognostic power of visceral obesity for cardiovascular events remained significant after adjustments for sex, age, diabetes, previous cardiovascular disease, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, BMI, GFR, hypertension, dyslipidemia and inflammation. CONCLUSION: Visceral obesity assessed by computed tomography was a predictor of cardiovascular events in CKD patients.

A proposed nomenclature and diagnostic criteria for protein-energy wasting in acute and chronic kidney disease.

The recent research findings concerning syndromes of muscle wasting, malnutrition, and inflammation in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) or acute kidney injury (AKI) have led to a need for new terminology. To address this need, the International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) convened an expert panel to review and develop standard terminologies and definitions related to wasting, cachexia, malnutrition, and inflammation in CKD and AKI. The ISRNM expert panel recommends the term 'protein-energy wasting' for loss of body protein mass and fuel reserves. 'Kidney disease wasting' refers to the occurrence of protein-energy wasting in CKD or AKI regardless of the cause. Cachexia is a severe form of protein-energy wasting that occurs infrequently in kidney disease. Protein-energy wasting is diagnosed if three characteristics are present (low serum levels of albumin, transthyretin, or cholesterol), reduced body mass (low or reduced body or fat mass or weight loss with reduced intake of protein and energy), and reduced muscle mass (muscle wasting or sarcopenia, reduced mid-arm muscle circumference). The kidney disease wasting is divided into two main categories of CKD- and AKI-associated protein-energy wasting. Measures of chronic inflammation or other developing tests can be useful clues for the existence of protein-energy wasting but do not define protein-energy wasting. Clinical staging and potential treatment strategies for protein-energy wasting are to be developed in the future.

Resting energy expenditure and its determinants in hemodialysis patients.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic kidney disease is associated with several metabolic disturbances that can affect energy metabolism. As resting energy expenditure (REE) is scarcely investigated in patients on hemodialysis (HD) therapy, we aimed to evaluate the REE and its determinants in HD patients. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Dialysis Unit of the Nephrology Division, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil. SUBJECTS: The study included 55 patients (28 male, 41.4+/-12.6 years old) undergoing HD therapy thrice weekly for at least 2 months, and 55 healthy individuals pair matched for age and gender. Subjects underwent fasting blood tests, as well as nutritional assessment, and the REE was assessed by indirect calorimetry. RESULTS: REE of HD patients was similar to that of pair-matched controls (1379+/-272 and 1440+/-259 kcal/day, respectively), even when adjusted for fat-free mass (P=0.24). REE of HD patients correlated positively with fat-free mass (r=0.74; P<0.001) and body mass index (r=0.37; P<0.01), and negatively with dialysis adequacy (r=-0.46; P<0.001). No significant univariate correlation was found between REE and age, dialysis vintage, serum creatinine, urea, albumin, bicarbonate, parathyroid hormone (PTH) or high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP). In the multiple linear regression analysis, using REE as dependent variable, the final model showed that besides the well-recognized determinants of REE such as fat-free mass and age, PTH and CRP were the independent determinants of REE in HD patients (R (2)=0.64). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, the REE of HD patients was similar to that of healthy individuals, even with the positive effect of secondary hyperparathyroidism and inflammation on REE of these patients.

Short-term effects of a very-low-protein diet supplemented with ketoacids in nondialyzed chronic kidney disease patients.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects on the nutritional and metabolic parameters of a very-low-protein diet supplemented with ketoacids (VLPD+KA) in comparison with a conventional low-protein diet (LPD) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical study. SETTING: Outpatient Clinic of the Nephrology Division of Federal University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. SUBJECTS: The study involved 24 patients with advanced CKD (creatinine clearance <25 ml/min) that were randomly assigned to either a VLPD+KA (VLPD+KA group, 12 patients) or to a conventional LPD with 0.6 g/kg/day (LPD group, 12 patients). The patients were followed for 4 months. RESULTS: Nutritional status was adequately maintained with both diets for the studied period. Protein intake and serum urea nitrogen decreased significantly only in the VLPD+KA group (from 0.68+/-0.17 to 0.43+/-0.12 g/kg/day, P<0.05; from 61.4+/-12.8 to 43.6+/-14.9 mg/dl, P<0.001; respectively). Ionized calcium did not change in the VLPD+KA group but tended to decrease in the LPD group. Serum phosphorus tended to decrease in the VLPD+KA group probably as a result of a significant reduction in dietary phosphorus (529+/-109 to 373+/-125 mg/day, P<0.05) associated to the phosphorus-binding effect of the ketoacids. No change in these parameters was found in the LPD group. Serum parathormone increased significantly only in the LPD group (from 241+/-138 to 494+/-390 pg/ml, P<0.01). The change in PTH concentration was negatively correlated with changes in ionized calcium concentration (r=-0.75, P=0.02) and positively correlated with changes in serum phosphorus (r=0.71, P=0.03) only in the LPD group. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that a VLPD+KA can maintain the nutritional status of the patients similarly to a conventional LPD. Besides, an improvement in calcium and phosphorus metabolism and a reduction in serum urea nitrogen were attained only with the VLPD+KA. Thus, VLPD+KA can constitute another efficient therapeutic alternative in the treatment of CKD patients.

Protein and energy depletion in chronic hemodialysis patients: clinical applicability of diagnostic tools.

Protein and energy depletion states are common and associated with increased morbidity and mortality in chronic hemodialysis (CHD) patients. Therefore, proper use of diagnostic tools to assess depleted states in CHD patients is critical. Assessment of protein and energy status can be done by an array of methodologies that include simple estimates of the visceral and somatic pools of protein to more refined techniques to measure protein and energy balance. The nutritional and metabolic derangements in the CHD population are highly complex and can be confounded by multiple comorbidities and fluid shifts between body compartments. Therefore, assessment of protein and energy status in CHD patients requires a wide range of methodologies that not only identify depleted states but also monitor nutrition therapy and predict clinical outcome. Most important, these methods require cautious and individualized interpretation in order to minimize the interference of comorbid conditions frequently observed in the CHD population. Currently, there is not a single method that can be considered the gold standard for assessment of protein and energy status in CHD patients. Therefore, a combination of methods is recommended. In this review, we describe available methods to assess protein and energy status, with special considerations pertaining to CHD patients.

Influence of renal function on spontaneous dietary intake and on nutritional status of chronic renal insufficiency patients.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the spontaneous food intake and the nutritional parameters of patients with different degrees of chronic renal insufficiency (CRI) at the onset of predialysis treatment. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Outpatient Clinic of the Nephrology Division of Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil. SUBJECTS: The analysis involved 487 (187 women and 300 men) patients with moderate to advanced CRI who were evaluated in the first visit to the clinic. RESULTS: Patients were divided according to creatinine clearance (CrCl) quartiles. CrCl in the first quartile was lower than 19.9 ml/min/1.73 m(2) and in the fourth one was higher than 43 ml/min/1.73 m(2). Energy intake was significantly (P<0.05) lower in the first quartile when compared with the fourth one while protein intake estimated by protein equivalent of nitrogen appearance (PNA) was significantly lower in the first, second and third quartiles in comparison with the fourth (P<0.05). Body mass index (BMI) and percentage of ideal body weight were significantly decreased in the three lowest levels of renal function. Standard per cent of triceps skinfold thickness was lower in the first quartile when compared with the fourth one. Compared with the fourth quartile, standard per cent of midarm muscle circumference (MAMC) was lower in the second and in the third quartile. CrCl correlated directly and significantly with PNA (r=0.30; P<0.01), energy intake (r=0.17; P<0.01), and MAMC (r=0.20; P<0.01). In a multiple linear regression analysis, controlling for energy and protein intake, CrCl correlated significantly and positively with BMI and MAMC. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that a spontaneous decrease in energy and protein intake as well as in anthropometric indices follows a decline in renal function in patients with no previous dietary intervention.

High prevalence of low bone mineral density in pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients: bone histomorphometric analysis.

UNLABELLED: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to reduced bone mineral density (BMD) in pre-dialysis and dialysis patients. A few studies have used dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) to assess BMD in pre-dialysis CKD patients and have shown low BMD to be highly prevalent. Until now there have been no studies reporting the histological features of low BMD in pre-dialysis CKD patients. AIM: To determine the prevalence and histological features of low BMD in pre-dialysis CKD patients. METHOD: Pre-dialysis CKD patients (n = 103, 46 females/57 males), median creatinine clearance of 29 (10 - 78) ml/min/ 1.73 m2, were evaluated using biochemical analysis and DEXA. Bone biopsies were obtained from those with low BMD. RESULTS: Fifty (48.5%) out of the 103 patients had low BMD (LBD group) and 53 (51.5%) had normal BMD (NBD group). The risk for low BMD was increased in those patients with alkaline phosphatase levels above 190 U/l and intact-PTH (iPTH) below 70 pg/ml (p < 0.05). Demographic and biochemical parameters from both groups were comparable, except for lower body mass index (BMI) in LBD subjects (p = 0.04). Women who had been post-menopausal for at least 1 year comprised 65% (13/20) and 50% (13/26) of the LBD and NBD groups, respectively (p = NS). In 40 LBD patients, bone histomorphometry revealed adynamic bone disease (ABD, 52.5%), osteomalacia (OM, 42.5%) and mixed bone disease (MBD, 5%). Trabecular bone volume (BV/TV) was lower in ABD and OM patients. A nearly significant association was found between ABD and iPTH < or = 150 pg/ml (p = 0.056), whereas higher values of iPTH were associated with OM. Total alkaline phosphatase < or = 190 U/l was significantly associated with ABD, whereas higher values were associated with OM. No correlation was observed between BV/TV and BMD. CONCLUSION: Low BMD is frequent in pre-dialysis CKD patients, and low turnover bone disease, manifesting as ABD and OM, was the hallmark of this bone loss.

High sodium chloride intake is associated with low bone density in calcium stone-forming patients.

BACKGROUND: Although renal stone disease has been associated with reduced bone mass, the impact of nutrient intake on bone loss is unknown. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The present study was undertaken to investigate the influence of nutrient intake on bone density of 85 calcium stone-forming (CSF) patients (47 male and 38 premenopausal females) aged 41+/-11 years (X+/-SD). Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry at the lumbar spine (L2-L4) and femoral neck sites, and low BMD was defined as a T score < -1 (WHO criteria). A 4-day dietary record and a 24-hour urine sample were obtained from each patient for the assessment of nutrient intake and urinary calcium (U(Ca)), sodium (U(Na)), phosphate and creatinine excretion. RESULTS: Forty-eight patients (56%) presented normal BMD and 37 (44%) low BMD. There were no statistical differences regarding age, weight, height, body mass index, protein, calcium and phosphorus intakes between both groups. The mean U(Ca), phosphorus and nitrogen appearance also did not differ between groups. However, there was a higher percentage of hypercalciuria among low vs normal BMD patients (62 vs 33%, p < 0.05). Low BMD patients presented a higher mean sodium chloride (NaCl) intake and excretion (UNa) than normal BMD (14+/-5 vs 12+/-4 g/day and 246+/-85 vs 204+/-68 mEq/day, respectively p < 0.05). The percentage of patients presenting NaCl intake > or = 16 g/day was also higher among low vs normal BMD patients (35 vs 12%, p < 0.05). After adjustment for calcium and protein intakes, age, weight, body mass index, urinary calcium, citrate and uric acid excretion, and duration of stone disease, multiple-regression analysis showed that a high NaCl intake (> or = 16 g/day) was the single variable that was predictive of risk of low bone density in CSF patients (odds ratio = 3.8). CONCLUSION: These data suggest that reducing salt intake should be recommended for CSF patients presenting hypercalciuria and osteopenia.

Parathyroid hormone changes during phosphorus load in patients with chronic renal insufficiency with low serum parathyroid hormone or adynamic bone disease.

UNLABELLED: Adynamic bone disease (ABD) is frequently associated with low serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations. Many clinical and therapeutic conditions have been associated with ABD, and recently, a low phosphorus intake accompanied by low serum concentration of phosphorus and PTH has been described. AIM: To evaluate the parathyroid gland response of chronic renal insufficiency patients (CRI) with low serum PTH or ABD to a phosphorus load. METHODS: We examined the effects of 0.5 and 1.0 g/d of phosphorus load over a period of 60 days in 18 patients with mild CRI with a bone biopsy showing ABD (n = 7) or with low serum PTH (serum intact PTH < or = 40 ng/l) and serum phosphorus < 4.5 mg/dl (n = 11). RESULTS: Serum intact PTH increased significantly only after 1 g of phosphorus (58.5 to 83 ng/l) with a median percent increase of 72%. PTH secretion increased more in patients with lower basal PTH levels (81%). Serum phosphorus did not change significantly and urinary phosphorus increased from 487 to 1,062 mg/dl (p < 0.05). Significant decreases in serum ionized calcium (from 1.26 to 1.19 mmol/l) and calcitriol (from 34.5 to 24.9 pg/ml) were observed. Changes in PTH were inversely correlated with changes in serum ionized calcium (r = -0.54, p < 0.05) and the final PTH concentrations were positively correlated with changes in serum phosphorus (r= 0.52, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The parathyroid glands of chronic renal insufficiency patients with "relative hypoparathyroidism" or ABD responded to a phosphorus load with an increase in serum PTH levels. The decrease in serum ionized calcium and calcitriol as well as minimal changes in serum phosphorus appeared to be involved in this response.

Nutritional status of hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism.

The repercussions of secondary hyperparathyroidism on the nutritional status of chronic renal failure patients have not been well established. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the nutritional indices of hemodialysis patients with and without secondary hyperparathyroidism. Sixteen hemodialysis patients with serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels higher than 420 pg/ml (hyperparathyroidism group) were matched for gender, age and length of dialysis treatment to 16 patients with serum PTH between 64 and 290 pg/ml (control group). The following parameters were assessed: anthropometric indices (body mass index, skinfold thickness, midarm muscle circumference and body fat), 4-day food diaries, protein catabolic rate, biochemical indices (blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, albumin, ionized calcium, inorganic phosphorus, serum alkaline phosphatase, PTH, pH and HCO(3)) and dialysis efficiency. We did not observe differences in the anthropometric indices between the two groups. Only calcium intake was significantly different between groups (307.9 mg/day for the hyperparathyroidism group vs 475.8 mg/day for the control group). Protein catabolic rate tended to be higher in the hyperparathyroidism group compared to the control group (1.3 vs 0.9 g kg(-1) day(-1); P = 0.08). Except for blood urea nitrogen (86.4 vs 75.7 mg/dl), alkaline phosphatase (175 vs 65 U/l) and PTH (898 vs 155 pg/ml), no other differences were found between groups in the biochemical indices studied. PTH was directly correlated with protein catabolic rate (r = 0.61; P<0.05) and length of dialysis (r = 0.53; P<0.05) only in the hyperparathyroidism group. Considering the indices used, we could not demonstrate the deleterious effect of high PTH levels on the nutritional status of hemodialysis patients. Indirect evidence, however, suggests an action of PTH on protein metabolism.

Dietary habits of calcium stone formers.

1. Since dietary factors are known to be related to nephrolithiasis, calcium stone-forming (CSF) patients were evaluated in terms of calcium, total protein of both animal and plant origin, carbohydrate and energy intakes, on the basis of 72-h dietary records during the week plus 24-h dietary records during the week-end. 2. The data for 77 calcium stone formers (57 with absorptive hypercalciuria and 20 with renal hypercalciuria) were compared to those for 29 age-matched healthy subjects. The body mass index of the CSF group was higher than that of healthy subjects (P < 0.05). Consumption of all nutrients was similar for both groups during the week but week-end dietary records for CSF showed higher calcium intake (586 +/- 38 vs 438 +/- 82 mg/day, P < 0.05), protein to body weight ratio (1.2 +/- 0.1 vs 1.0 +/- 0.5 g kg-1 day-1, P < 0.05) and animal protein (56 +/- 3 vs 40 +/- 3 g/day, P < 0.05) when compared with healthy subjects. 3. Comparison of hypercalciuria subtypes (renal hypercalciuria and absorptive hypercalciuria) did not indicate any difference in calcium or energy intake between groups, either during the week or during the week-end. However, the absorptive hypercalciuric group presented higher protein and animal protein consumption during the week-end. 4. These data suggest a low calcium intake in this population, even by stone formers. The higher animal protein consumption by our calcium stone formers observed during week-ends seems to be more important than calcium intake for stone formation.

A Web-based distance education course in nutrition in public health: case study.

BACKGROUND: Strict work timetables, personal and professional duties or an inability to be absent from home or work can all represent major constraints for those wishing to improve their professional skills. Within this context, the World Wide Web can allow people to conveniently follow distance courses from their homes. OBJECTIVE: To present an experience in the use of the Web in the continuing education of healthcare professionals in Brazil. METHODS: A Web-based distance education course in nutrition in public health was developed. The methodology was an adaptation of both problem-based and task-based learning. At the end of the course an evaluation questionnaire which covered the course s contents, the educational methodology and resources, the duration and schedule, and the use of the Web as a tool for distance education was given to the students. RESULTS: There were 83 on line registrations from 13 states, 73 of the applicants were female, 62 had a degree in nutrition and 18 were physicians. From these; eleven students from ten states were chosen: nine female nutritionists, two female physicians, and one male physician. Seven students completed the course, took and passed the final exam. Of the other four students, two failed to follow the schedule, one had health problems, and one did not obtain the minimal score for sitting the final exam. The students had a mean age of 35, and a mean of ten years in practice. They all stated that they were unable to attend a regular course, even though they felt that they needed to improve their professional skills. Most of them studied seven days a week for between two and four hours a day. The students also felt that their professional skills had improved and each reported having made changes in their practice as a result of their participation. The students approved of the course s contents, methodology and resources, however they were divided about its duration. The Web as a tool in distance education was approved by the students. If it was not for the Web they could not have taken part in a continuing education program. All students said they would attend another virtual course, if available. Even though most of them did not have difficulty adapting to the virtual environment, they did feel that an adaptation period would be of value. CONCLUSIONS: A Web-based course may be more effective than other distance education methodologies because it is more interactive and dynamic. On-line material can be constantly reviewed and updated, and the students can have the opportunity to submit commentaries or questions directly to the teaching staff. A Web-based course also allows the students to go beyond the course content as they learn how to search and take advantage of the huge resources of information available on the Internet.

Increased visceral adiposity is associated with coronary artery calcification in male patients with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Recent epidemiological data have shown that abdominal fat accumulation is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study aimed to investigate the association between visceral adiposity and coronary artery calcification (CAC) in CKD patients. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Cross-sectional study with 65 nondialyzed CKD male patients (59 ± 9 years, CKD stages 3 and 4). Abdominal fat compartments were assessed by computed tomography (CT) at L4-L5 level. Visceral to subcutaneous (V/S) fat ratio was calculated. Visceral obesity was defined as a V/S fat ratio greater than the median value of the sample study (>0.55). CAC was detected by multi-slice CT. CAC scores were calculated with the Agatston method. RESULTS: CAC was present (calcium score >10 AU) in 66% of patients. In the group with visceral obesity, the CAC score was significantly higher. This group had lower adiponectin and higher leptin levels compared to patients without visceral obesity. In the whole sample, higher V/S fat ratio was associated with CAC score, independently of age, body mass index, diabetes, ionized calcium, smoking or renal function. CONCLUSION: Our results show an association between visceral obesity and CAC in CKD patients, suggesting a deleterious effect of visceral fat in these patients. Increased visceral adiposity might enhance cardiovascular risk in this particular population.

Nutritional status and body composition after 6 months of patients switching from continuous ambulatorial peritoneal dialysis to automated peritoneal dialysis.

Our objective was to determine if automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) leads to changes in nutritional parameters of patients treated by continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Twenty-six patients (15 males; 50.5 +/- 14.3 years) were evaluated during CAPD while training for APD and after 3 and 6 months of APD. Body fat was assessed by the sum of skinfold thickness and the other body compartments were assessed by bioelectrical impedance. During the 6-month follow-up, 12 patients gained more than 1 kg (GW group), 8 patients lost more than 1 kg (LW group), and 6 patients maintained body weight (MW group). Except for length on dialysis that was longer for the LW group compared with the GW group, no other differences were found between the groups at baseline. After 6 months on APD, the LW group had a reduction in body fat (24.5 +/- 7.7 vs 22.1 +/- 7.3 kg; P = 0.01), body cell mass (22.6 +/- 6.2 vs 21.6 +/- 5.8 kg, P = 0.02) and phase angle (5.4 +/- 0.9 vs 5.1 +/- 0.8 degrees, P = 0.004). In the GW group, body fat (25 +/- 7.6 vs 27.2 +/- 7.6 kg, P = 0.001) and body cell mass (20.1 +/- 3.9 vs 20.8 +/- 4.0 kg, P = 0.05) were increased. In the present study, different patterns of change in body composition were found. The length of previous dialysis treatment seems to be the most important factor in determining these nutritional modifications.

Potassium and sodium intake and excretion in calcium stone forming patients.

OBJECTIVE: To determine mean potassium (K) intake and its correlation with urinary calcium (uCa) and citrate excretion, as well as uCa, sodium (Na), and K levels of calcium stone forming patients. We determined the K-rich foods most commonly consumed by these patients. DESIGN: Case-control. SETTING: University-affiliated outpatient renal Lithiasis Unit. PATIENTS AND CONTROLS: One hundred hypercalciuric calcium stone forming patients (CSF, 54 men/46 women), 37 with associated hypocitraturia, were sequentially enrolled in the study that was performed before the initiation of any care for their renal stones. The control group consisted of 100 age-matched healthy subjects (HS, 47 men/53 women) who were laboratory employees with no history of renal stones. INTERVENTION: The analyses consisted of a 3-day dietary record to determine the mean K and calcium (Ca) intakes, and a 24-hour urine sample with measurements of K, Ca, Na, and citrate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: K and Na intake determined by dietary record. RESULTS: uCa and Na levels and the Na/K ratio were significantly higher for CSF versus HS (238 +/- 118 v 148 +/- 74 mg/24 hours, 238 +/- 100 v 181 +/- 68 mEq/24 hours, 6.6 +/- 3.5 v 5.1 +/- 2.3, respectively, P < .05). The mean citrate excretion was lower in CSF than in HS patients (410 +/- 265 v 530 +/- 240 mg/24 hours). Mean uCa did not differ between groups. CSF patients showed a higher sodium chloride intake compared with HS (14 +/- 4 vs 8 +/- 3 g/day). The mean Ca intake of CSF and HS were 559 +/- 327 and 457 +/- 363 mg/day, respectively. The mean K intake of CSF and HS were 58 +/- 17 and 51 +/- 27 mEq/day. A positive correlation was observed between uCa and urinary sodium (r = .40 and r = .65, P < .05), urinary potassium and urinary citrate (r = .25 and r = .53, P < .05), uCa and Na/K (r = .33 and r = .56, P < .05) respectively for CSF and HS. The following were the K-rich foods consumed at least once a day by these groups: beans (by 70% of CSF and 75% of HS), tomatoes (by 42% of CSF and 50% of HS), oranges (by 30% of CSF and 55% of HS), and bananas (by 42% of CSF and 23% of HS). CONCLUSION: Despite the consumption of K-rich foods at least once a day, the mean K intake by CSF patients was 58 mEq/day. This intake can still be considered to be low, although it meets recommended daily dietary allowance requirements. Therefore, we describe herein a population of CSF with high-Na intake and normal- to low-K intake, which may contribute to stone formation.

[Nutritional assessment of chronic renal patients in hemodialysis programs. A multicenter study]. / Avaliação nutricional em pacientes renais crônicos em programa de hemodiálise. Estudo multicêntrico.

The food intake and the nutritional status of 100 chronic renal failure patients on maintenance hemodialysis in 10 facilities in the city of São Paulo were studied. The average food intake obtained through 3 days of dietary diaries showed a caloric intake of 26.6 +/- 10kcal/kg/day (mean +/- SD), 24% below the minimum daily caloric intake recommendation and a protein intake of 1.03 +/- 1.4g/kg/day which averaged the minimum recommended for chronic renal patients on hemodialysis. The average intakes of calcium (418.6 +/- 294.9mg), phosphate (813.5 +/- 335.2mg) and iron (10.5 +/- 4.9mg) were also low. Mean serum albumin was 3.9 +/- 0.7g/dl and only 3.1% of the patients had albumin levels below 3.0g/dl. There was no difference between the real and ideal body weight. On the other hand 69% of women and 25% of men had the triceps skin fold (TSF) in the 5th percentile while 24% of women and 79% of men exhibited values of the muscle arm circumference (MAC) in the same percentile. Moreover there were inverse and significant correlations between the time on dialysis and TSF for women (r = -0.19) and the time on dialysis and MAC for men (r = -0.16). This study shows that our patients on hemodialysis have a poor food intake, with marked reduction of fat and muscle stores. The undernourished state observed tended to be more pronounced with the duration of the dialysis treatment and could influence negatively on the morbidity and mortality of these patients.

Resting energy expenditure in pre-dialysis diabetic patients.

BACKGROUND: The metabolic derangements of diabetes mellitus (DM) associated with those of chronic renal failure (CRF) may interfere with the energy and protein balance of patients with both diseases. The aim of this study was to verify whether the resting energy expenditure (REE) of non-dialysis chronic renal failure diabetic patients differs from that of chronic renal failure patients without DM. METHODS: REE was measured by indirect calorimetry in 24 CRF diabetic patients (CRF diabetes group), matched for age, gender, and degree of renal impairment to 24 CRF patients without DM (CRF control group). RESULTS: The CRF diabetes group had a significantly higher REE (1538+/-230 kcal/day) than the CRF control group (1339+/-315 kcal/day, P = 0.009). This difference was maintained even when the REE was adjusted for lean body mass (LBM; 30.3+/-4.3 vs 26.3+/-5.4 kcal/kg LBM/day, P = 0.004). Mean protein intake was significantly higher in the CRF diabetes than in the CRF control group (0.89+/-0.20 vs 0.76+/-0.25 g/kg/day, P = 0.02). Mean protein equivalent of nitrogen appearance (PNA) was also significantly higher in the CRF diabetes patients (1.21+/-0.31 vs 1.03+/-0.22 g/kg/day, P = 0.02), reflecting a higher protein intake and/or elevated protein breakdown. Accordingly, REE was directly correlated with PNA mainly in the CRF diabetes group (r = 0.57, P < 0.003). CONCLUSION: Metabolic disturbances of poorly controlled DM may account for the higher REE observed in the CRF diabetes group. The role of the apparently higher protein breakdown in this increased REE remains to be clarified.

Nutritional status and body composition after 6 months of patients switching from continuous ambulatorial peritoneal dialysis to automated peritoneal dialysis

Our objective was to determine if automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) leads to changes in nutritional parameters of patients treated by continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Twenty-six patients (15 males; 50.5 ± 14.3 years) were evaluated during CAPD while training for APD and after 3 and 6 months of APD. Body fat was assessed by the sum of skinfold thickness and the other body compartments were assessed by bioelectrical impedance. During the 6-month follow-up, 12 patients gained more than 1 kg (GW group), 8 patients lost more than 1 kg (LW group), and 6 patients maintained body weight (MW group). Except for length on dialysis that was longer for the LW group compared with the GW group, no other differences were found between the groups at baseline. After 6 months on APD, the LW group had a reduction in body fat (24.5 ± 7.7 vs 22.1 ± 7.3 kg; P = 0.01), body cell mass (22.6 ± 6.2 vs 21.6 ± 5.8 kg, P = 0.02) and phase angle (5.4 ± 0.9 vs 5.1 ± 0.8 degrees, P = 0.004). In the GW group, body fat (25 ± 7.6 vs 27.2 ± 7.6 kg, P = 0.001) and body cell mass (20.1 ± 3.9 vs 20.8 ± 4.0 kg, P = 0.05) were increased. In the present study, different patterns of change in body composition were found. The length of previous dialysis treatment seems to be the most important factor in determining these nutritional modifications.