Comparisons in the Health and Economic Assessments of Using Quadrivalent Versus Trivalent Influenza Vaccines: A Systematic Literature Review.

OBJECTIVES: Seasonal influenza vaccines protect against 3 (trivalent influenza vaccine [IIV3]) or 4 (quadrivalent influenza vaccine [IIV4]) viruses. IIV4 costs more than IIV3, and there is a trade-off between incremental cost and protection. This is especially the case in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with limited budgets; previous reviews have not identified studies of IIV4-IIV3 comparisons in LMICs. We summarized the literature that compared health and economic outcomes of IIV4 and IIV3, focused on LMICs. METHODS: We systematically searched 5 databases for articles published before October 6, 2021, that modeled health or economic effects of IIV4 versus IIV3. We abstracted data and compared findings among countries and models. RESULTS: Thirty-eight studies fit our selection criteria; 10 included LMICs. Most studies (N = 31) reported that IIV4 was cost-saving or cost-effective compared with IIV3; we observed no difference in health or economic outcomes between LMICs and other countries. Based on cost differences of influenza vaccines, only one study compared coverage of IIV3 with IIV4 and reported that the maximum IIV4 price that would still yield greater public health impact than IIV3 was 13% to 22% higher than IIV3. CONCLUSIONS: When vaccination coverage with IIV4 and IIV3 is the same, IIV4 tends to be not only more effective but more cost-effective than IIV3, even with relatively high price differences between vaccine types. Alternatively, where funding is limited as in most LMICs, higher vaccine coverage can be achieved with IIV3 than IIV4, which could result in more favorable health and economic outcomes.

Update: Influenza Activity - United States and Worldwide, May 20-October 13, 2018.

During May 20-October 13, 2018,* low levels of influenza activity were reported in the United States, with a mix of influenza A and B viruses circulating. Seasonal influenza activity in the Southern Hemisphere was low overall, with influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 predominating in many regions. Antigenic testing of available influenza A and B viruses indicated that no significant antigenic drift in circulating viruses had emerged. In late September, the components for the 2019 Southern Hemisphere influenza vaccine were selected and included an incremental update to the A(H3N2) vaccine virus used in egg-based vaccine manufacturing; no change was recommended for the A(H3N2) component of cell-manufactured or recombinant influenza vaccines. Annual influenza vaccination is the best method for preventing influenza illness and its complications, and all persons aged ≥6 months who do not have contraindications should receive influenza vaccine, preferably before the onset of influenza circulation in their community, which often begins in October and peaks during December-February. Health care providers should offer vaccination by the end of October and should continue to recommend and administer influenza vaccine to previously unvaccinated patients throughout the 2018-19 influenza season (1). In addition, during May 20-October 13, a small number of nonhuman influenza "variant" virus infections† were reported in the United States; most were associated with exposure to swine. Although limited human-to-human transmission might have occurred in one instance, no ongoing community transmission was identified. Vulnerable populations, especially young children and other persons at high risk for serious influenza complications, should avoid swine barns at agricultural fairs, or close contact with swine.§.

Cholera Epidemic - Lusaka, Zambia, October 2017-May 2018.

On October 6, 2017, an outbreak of cholera was declared in Zambia after laboratory confirmation of Vibrio cholerae O1, biotype El Tor, serotype Ogawa, from stool specimens from two patients with acute watery diarrhea. The two patients had gone to a clinic in Lusaka, the capital city, on October 4. Cholera cases increased rapidly, from several hundred cases in early December 2017 to approximately 2,000 by early January 2018 (Figure). In collaboration with partners, the Zambia Ministry of Health (MoH) launched a multifaceted public health response that included increased chlorination of the Lusaka municipal water supply, provision of emergency water supplies, water quality monitoring and testing, enhanced surveillance, epidemiologic investigations, a cholera vaccination campaign, aggressive case management and health care worker training, and laboratory testing of clinical samples. In late December 2017, a number of water-related preventive actions were initiated, including increasing chlorine levels throughout the city's water distribution system and placing emergency tanks of chlorinated water in the most affected neighborhoods; cholera cases declined sharply in January 2018. During January 10-February 14, 2018, approximately 2 million doses of oral cholera vaccine were administered to Lusaka residents aged ≥1 year. However, in mid-March, heavy flooding and widespread water shortages occurred, leading to a resurgence of cholera. As of May 12, 2018, the outbreak had affected seven of the 10 provinces in Zambia, with 5,905 suspected cases and a case fatality rate (CFR) of 1.9%. Among the suspected cases, 5,414 (91.7%), including 98 deaths (CFR = 1.8%), occurred in Lusaka residents.

Quantified impacts of non-pharmaceutical interventions on influenza circulation during the COVID-19 pandemic in 13 African countries, 2020-2022.

Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) for SARS-CoV-2 disrupted circulation of influenza. We used data from 13 African countries and generalized linear models to identify associations between levels of NPIs, using the Oxford Stringency Index, and seasonal influenza activity, using parameters derived from 2020-2022 seasonal influenza surveillance. We found that for each step increase in school closings, the average percentage of respiratory specimens testing positive for influenza across the influenza season dropped by 20% (95% CI: 1-38%); no other NPI was significant. These findings may inform interventions to slow influenza circulation in pandemics and possibly during seasonal epidemics.

The role of asymptomatic infections in influenza transmission: what do we really know.

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of asymptomatic influenza virus infections in influenza transmission was uncertain. However, the importance of asymptomatic infection with SARS-CoV-2 for onward transmission of COVID-19 has led experts to question whether the role of asymptomatic influenza virus infections in transmission had been underappreciated. We discuss the existing evidence on the frequency of asymptomatic influenza virus infections, the extent to which they contribute to infection transmission, and remaining knowledge gaps. We propose priority areas for further evaluation, study designs, and case definitions to address existing knowledge gaps.

Safety and immunogenicity of locally produced trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (Tri Fluvac) in healthy Thai adults aged 18-64 years in Nakhon Phanom: A Phase III double blinded, three-arm, randomized, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Domestic influenza vaccine production facilitates a sustainable supply for mitigating seasonal influenza and improves national health security by providing infrastructure and experience for pandemic vaccine production, if needed. METHODS: A Phase III, double blind, randomized controlled trial was conducted from Sep 2019-Oct 2020 in healthy adults 18-64 years in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand. Randomization (3:3:1) compared study vaccine (Tri Fluvac), saline placebo, and an active comparator (licensed vaccine). Primary outcomes were superior efficacy compared to placebo based on RT-PCR-confirmed influenza virus infection within 12 months and non-inferiority compared to active comparator based on immunogenicity (HAI assay) at 28 days. Safety was also assessed. RESULTS: The trial enrolled 4,284 participants (Tri Fluvac = 1,836; placebo = 1,836; active comparator = 612). There were 29 RT-PCR positive influenza infections (10 Tri Fluvac, 5.5/1,000 PY; 19 placebo, 10.4/1,000PY; 0 comparator) for an absolute protective efficacy of 46.4 (95 % CI = -22.0-76.5) compared with placebo, but the power was 43.7 %. Seroconversion difference rates between Tri Fluvac and comparator at Day 28 were 1.74 (95 % CI: -2.77, 6.25), 2.22 (-2.40, 6.84), and -0.57 (-5.41, 4.27) for A(H1N1), A(H3N2), and B strains, respectively. Adverse and severe adverse events occurred in 175 (9.5 %) Tri Fluvac, 177 (10.8 %) placebo, and 66 (10.8 %) comparator arms (p-value = 0.437, Tri Fluvac vs. comparator) CONCLUSIONS: Tri Fluvac was well tolerated, and immunogenicity was non-inferior to the active comparator, meeting U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) criteria for adult vaccine licensure. Few acute respiratory infections were reported during intense COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, resulting in insufficient power to evaluate clinical efficacy.

Food as a Driver of a Cholera Epidemic in Jijiga, Ethiopia-June 2017.

We conducted a case-control study to identify risk and protective factors during a cholera outbreak in Jijiga, Ethiopia, in June 2017. A case-patient was defined as anyone > 5 years old with at least three loose stools in 24 hours who was admitted to a cholera treatment center in Jijiga on or after June 16, 2017. Two controls were matched to each case by type of residency (rural or urban) and age group. We enrolled 55 case-patients and 102 controls from June 16 to June 23, 2017. Identified risk factors for cholera were male sex, eating cold food, and eating food outside the home. Eating hot food was protective, as was reported handwashing after defecation; no other reported water, sanitation, and hygiene factors were associated with cholera risk. Recommendations included continuing messaging about safe food handling practices at home, the dangers of consuming meals prepared away from home, and the importance of hand hygiene practices.

Changes in Personal Protective Equipment Usage Among Healthcare Personnel From the Beginning of Pandemic to Intra-COVID-19 Pandemic in Thailand.

OBJECTIVES: Personal protective equipment (PPE) use is associated with reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection among healthcare personnel (HCP). There are limited data on the impact of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the PPE use of HCP. We describe the changes in PPE use from just before the widespread of community outbreaks ('pre-pandemic') to intra-pandemic time points, and examine factors associated with not changing in PPE use behavior among HCP in four Thai hospitals. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort evaluation using two-time points: (i) February-March 2020 (pre-pandemic period); and (ii) January-March 2021 (intra-pandemic period). Self-reported frequency of appropriate PPE use was measured by a Likert scale. We used multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with no increase in self-reported PPE use. RESULTS: Of 343 HCP, the proportion of participants reporting 'always' using PPE rose from 66% during the pre-pandemic period to 80% during the pandemic. Factors associated with HCP who did not increase in PPE use included having high baseline reported PPE, being a non-registered HCP (e.g. nurse assistants, dental assistants, porters), being male, and having a low perceived risk of becoming infected with any respiratory virus while working in the hospital. CONCLUSION: PPE education, training, and risk communication content should target all cadres of HCP, regardless of registered/non-registered status, with a focus on behavior change for improved prevention and control of SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory viruses in healthcare settings.

Reported Global Avian Influenza Detections Among Humans and Animals During 2013-2022: Comprehensive Review and Analysis of Available Surveillance Data.

BACKGROUND: Avian influenza (AI) virus detections occurred frequently in 2022 and continue to pose a health, economic, and food security risk. The most recent global analysis of official reports of animal outbreaks and human infections with all reportable AI viruses was published almost a decade ago. Increased or renewed reports of AI viruses, especially high pathogenicity H5N8 and H5N1 in birds and H5N1, H5N8, and H5N6 in humans globally, have established the need for a comprehensive review of current global AI virus surveillance data to assess the pandemic risk of AI viruses. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to provide an analysis of global AI animal outbreak and human case surveillance information from the last decade by describing the circulating virus subtypes, regions and temporal trends in reporting, and country characteristics associated with AI virus outbreak reporting in animals; surveillance and reporting gaps for animals and humans are identified. METHODS: We analyzed AI virus infection reports among animals and humans submitted to animal and public health authorities from January 2013 to June 2022 and compared them with reports from January 2005 to December 2012. A multivariable regression analysis was used to evaluate associations between variables of interest and reported AI virus animal outbreaks. RESULTS: From 2013 to 2022, 52.2% (95/182) of World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) Member Countries identified 34 AI virus subtypes during 21,249 outbreaks. The most frequently reported subtypes were high pathogenicity AI H5N1 (10,079/21,249, 47.43%) and H5N8 (6722/21,249, 31.63%). A total of 10 high pathogenicity AI and 6 low pathogenicity AI virus subtypes were reported to the WOAH for the first time during 2013-2022. AI outbreaks in animals occurred in 26 more Member Countries than reported in the previous 8 years. Decreasing World Bank income classification was significantly associated with decreases in reported AI outbreaks (P<.001-.02). Between January 2013 and June 2022, 17/194 (8.8%) World Health Organization (WHO) Member States reported 2000 human AI virus infections of 10 virus subtypes. H7N9 (1568/2000, 78.40%) and H5N1 (254/2000, 12.70%) viruses accounted for the most human infections. As many as 8 of these 17 Member States did not report a human case prior to 2013. Of 1953 human cases with available information, 74.81% (n=1461) had a known animal exposure before onset of illness. The median time from illness onset to the notification posted on the WHO event information site was 15 days (IQR 9-30 days; mean 24 days). Seasonality patterns of animal outbreaks and human infections with AI viruses were very similar, occurred year-round, and peaked during November through May. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests that AI outbreaks are more frequently reported and geographically widespread than in the past. Global surveillance gaps include inconsistent reporting from all regions and human infection reporting delays. Continued monitoring for AI virus outbreaks in animals and human infections with AI viruses is crucial for pandemic preparedness.

Lessons learned from identifying clusters of severe acute respiratory infections with influenza sentinel surveillance, Bangladesh, 2009-2020.

Background: We explored whether hospital-based surveillance is useful in detecting severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) clusters and how often these events result in outbreak investigation and community mitigation. Methods: During May 2009-December 2020, physicians at 14 sentinel hospitals prospectively identified SARI clusters (i.e., ≥2 SARI cases who developed symptoms ≤10 days of each other and lived <30 min walk or <3 km from each other). Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs were tested for influenza and other respiratory viruses by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). We describe the demographic of persons within clusters, laboratory results, and outbreak investigations. Results: Field staff identified 464 clusters comprising 1427 SARI cases (range 0-13 clusters per month). Sixty percent of clusters had three, 23% had two, and 17% had ≥4 cases. Their median age was 2 years (inter-quartile range [IQR] 0.4-25) and 63% were male. Laboratory results were available for the 464 clusters with a median of 9 days (IQR = 6-13 days) after cluster identification. Less than one in five clusters had cases that tested positive for the same virus: respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in 58 (13%), influenza viruses in 24 (5%), human metapneumovirus (HMPV) in five (1%), human parainfluenza virus (HPIV) in three (0.6%), adenovirus in two (0.4%). While 102/464 (22%) had poultry exposure, none tested positive for influenza A (H5N1) or A (H7N9). None of the 464 clusters led to field deployments for outbreak response. Conclusions: For 11 years, none of the hundreds of identified clusters led to an emergency response. The value of this event-based surveillance might be improved by seeking larger clusters, with stronger epidemiologic ties or decedents.

The role of non-pharmaceutical interventions on influenza circulation during the COVID-19 pandemic in nine tropical Asian countries.

BACKGROUND: Low global influenza circulation was reported during the coronavirus-19 pandemic. We explored relationships between non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) and influenza in tropical Asian countries. METHODS: Using World Health Organization (WHO) surveillance data from 2015 to 2019 and the WHO shiny app, we constructed expected seasonal influenza epidemic curves from March 2020 to June 2021 and compared the timing, and average percent positivity with observed data. We used multivariate regression to test associations between ordinal NPI data (from the Oxford Stringency Index) 4 weeks before the expected 2020/21 epidemics and present adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) or relative proportion ratio (RPR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Data from nine countries predicted 18 seasonal epidemics; seven were observed. Five started 6-24 weeks later, and all were 4-21 weeks shorter than expected. Five epidemics had lower maximum peak values (percent positivity), and all but one had lower average percent positivity than expected. All countries implemented NPIs. Each increased level of school closure reduced risk of an epidemic by 43% (IRR = 0.57, CI: 0.34, 0.95). Each increased level of canceling public events reduced the average percent positivity across the season by 44% (RPR = 0.56, CI: 0.39, 0.82) and each increased level in restricting internal movements reduced it by 41% (RPR = 0.59, CI: 0.36, 0.96). Other NPIs were not associated with changes. CONCLUSIONS: Among nine countries, the 2020/21 seasonal epidemics were delayed, shorter, and less intense than expected. Although layered NPIs were difficult to tease apart, school closings, canceling public events, and restricting internal movements before influenza circulation seemed to reduce transmission.

Incidence and seasonality of respiratory viruses among medically attended children with acute respiratory infections in an Ecuador birth cohort, 2011-2014.

BACKGROUND: Ecuador annually has handwashing and respiratory hygiene campaigns and seasonal influenza vaccination to prevent respiratory virus illnesses but has yet to quantify disease burden and determine epidemic timing. METHODS: To identify respiratory virus burden and assess months with epidemic activity, we followed a birth cohort in northwest Ecuador during 2011-2014. Mothers brought children to the study clinic for routine checkups at ages 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 years or if children experienced any acute respiratory illness symptoms (e.g., cough, fever, or difficulty breathing); clinical care was provided free of charge. Those with medically attended acute respiratory infections (MAARIs) were tested for common respiratory viruses via real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). RESULTS: In 2011, 2376 children aged 1-4 years (median 35 months) were enrolled in the respiratory cohort and monitored for 7017.5 child-years (cy). The incidence of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) was 23.9 (95% CI 17.3-30.5), influenza 10.6 (2.4-18.8), adenoviruses 6.7 (4.6-28.0), parainfluenzas 5.0 (2.3-10.5), and rhinoviruses, bocaviruses, human metapneumoviruses, seasonal coronaviruses, and enteroviruses <3/100 cy among children aged 12-23 months and declined with age. Most (75%) influenza detections occurred April-September. CONCLUSION: Cohort children frequently had MAARIs, and while the incidence decreased rapidly among older children, more than one in five children aged 12-23 months tested positive for RSV, and one in 10 tested positive for influenza. Our findings suggest this substantial burden of influenza occurred more commonly during the winter Southern Hemisphere influenza season.

Multiple clinical practice guidelines for breast and cervical cancer screening: perceptions of US primary care physicians.

BACKGROUND: Multiple clinical practice guidelines exist for breast and cervical cancer screening, and differ in aggressiveness with respect to the recommended frequency and target populations for screening. OBJECTIVES: To determine (1) US primary care physicians' (PCPs) perceptions of the influence of different clinical practice guidelines; (2) the relationship between the number, aggressiveness, and agreement of influential guidelines and the aggressiveness of physicians' screening recommendations; and (3) factors associated with guideline perceptions. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A nationally representative sample of 1212 PCPs was surveyed in 2006-2007. Cross-sectional analyses examined physicians' perceptions of the influence of different breast and cervical cancer screening guidelines, the relationship of guideline perceptions to screening recommendations in response to hypothetical vignettes, and the predictors of guideline perceptions. RESULTS: American Cancer Society and American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists guidelines were perceived as more influential than other guidelines. Most physicians (62%) valued multiple guidelines, and conflicting and aggressive rather than conservative guideline combinations. The number, aggressiveness, and agreement of influential guidelines were associated with the aggressiveness of screening recommendations (P < 0.01)-which was highest for physicians valuing multiple-aggressive, lowest for physicians valuing multiple-conservative, and intermediate for physicians valuing multiple-conflicting, single, and no guidelines. Obstetrician/gynecologists specialty predicted valuation of aggressive guidelines (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: PCPs' perceptions of cancer screening guidelines vary, relate to screening recommendations in logically-consistent ways, and are predicted by specialty and other factors. The number, aggressiveness, and agreement of valued guidelines are associated with screening recommendations, suggesting that guideline multiplicity is an important problem in clinical decision-making.

State-based estimates of mammography screening rates based on information from two health surveys.

OBJECTIVES: We compared national and state-based estimates for the prevalence of mammography screening from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), and a model-based approach that combines information from the two surveys. METHODS: At the state and national levels, we compared the three estimates of prevalence for two time periods (1997-1999 and 2000-2003) and the estimated difference between the periods. We included state-level covariates in the model-based approach through principal components. RESULTS: The national mammography screening prevalence estimate based on the BRFSS was substantially larger than the NHIS estimate for both time periods. This difference may have been due to nonresponse and noncoverage biases, response mode (telephone vs. in-person) differences, or other factors. However, the estimated change between the two periods was similar for the two surveys. Consistent with the model assumptions, the model-based estimates were more similar to the NHIS estimates than to the BRFSS prevalence estimates. The state-level covariates (through the principal components) were shown to be related to the mammography prevalence with the expected positive relationship for socioeconomic status and urbanicity. In addition, several principal components were significantly related to the difference between NHIS and BRFSS telephone prevalence estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Model-based estimates, based on information from the two surveys, are useful tools in representing combined information about mammography prevalence estimates from the two surveys. The model-based approach adjusts for the possible nonresponse and noncoverage biases of the telephone survey while using the large BRFSS state sample size to increase precision.

Specialty differences in primary care physician reports of papanicolaou test screening practices: a national survey, 2006 to 2007.

BACKGROUND: Cervical cancer screening guidelines were substantially revised in 2002 and 2003. Little information is available about primary care physicians' current Papanicolaou (Pap) test screening practices, including initiation, frequency, and stopping. OBJECTIVE: To assess current Pap test screening practices in the United States. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Nationally representative sample of physicians during 2006 to 2007. PARTICIPANTS: 1212 primary care physicians. MEASUREMENTS: The survey included questions about physician and practice characteristics and recommendations for Pap screening presented as clinical vignettes describing women by age and by sexual and screening histories. A composite measure-guideline-consistent recommendations-was created by using responses to vignettes in which major guidelines were uniform. RESULTS: Most physicians reported providing Pap tests to their eligible patients (91.0% [95% CI, 89.0% to 92.6%]). Among Pap test providers (n = 1114), screening practices, including number of tests ordered or performed, use of patient reminder systems, and cytology method used, varied by physician specialty (P < 0.001). Although most Pap test providers reported that screening guidelines were very influential in their clinical practice, few had guideline-consistent recommendations for starting and stopping Pap screening across multiple vignettes (22.3% [CI, 19.9% to 25.0%]). Guideline-consistent recommendations varied by specialty (obstetrics/gynecology, 16.4%; internal medicine, 27.5%; and family or general practice, 21.1%). Compared with obstetricians/gynecologists, internal medicine specialists and family or general practice specialists were more likely to have guideline-consistent screening recommendations (odds ratio, 1.98 [CI, 1.22 to 3.23] and 1.45 [CI, 0.99 to 2.13], respectively) in multivariate analysis. LIMITATION: Physician self-report may reflect idealized rather than actual practice. CONCLUSION: Primary care physicians' recommendations for Pap test screening are not consistent with screening guidelines, reflecting overuse of screening. Implementation of effective interventions that focus on potentially modifiable physician and practice factors is needed to improve screening practice. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: National Cancer Institute, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

Risk Factors for Epidemic Cholera in Lusaka, Zambia-2017.

On October 6, 2017, the Zambia Ministry of Health declared a cholera outbreak in Lusaka. By December, 1,462 cases and 38 deaths had occurred (case fatality rate, 2.6%). We conducted a case-control study to identify risk factors and inform interventions. A case was any person with acute watery diarrhea (≥ 3 loose stools in 24 hours) admitted to a cholera treatment center in Lusaka from December 16 to 21, 2017. Controls were neighbors without diarrhea during the same time period. Up to two controls were matched to each case by age-group (1-4, 5-17, and ≥ 18 years) and neighborhood. Surveyors interviewed cases and controls, tested free chlorine residual (FCR) in stored water, and observed the presence of soap in the home. Conditional logistic regression was used to generate matched odds ratios (mORs) based on subdistricts and age-groups with 95% CIs. We enrolled 82 cases and 132 controls. Stored water in 71% of case homes had an FCR > 0.2 mg/L. In multivariable analyses, those who drank borehole water (mOR = 2.4, CI: 1.1-5.6), had close contact with a cholera case (mOR = 6.2, CI: 2.5-15), and were male (mOR = 2.5, CI: 1.4-5.0) had higher odds of being a cholera case than their matched controls. Based on these findings, we recommended health education about household water chlorination and hygiene in the home. Emergency responses included providing chlorinated water through emergency tanks and maintaining adequate FCR levels through close monitoring of water sources.

Trends in area-socioeconomic and race-ethnic disparities in breast cancer incidence, stage at diagnosis, screening, mortality, and survival among women ages 50 years and over (1987-2005).

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death among women in the United States and varies systematically by race-ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Previous research has often focused on disparities between particular groups, but few studies have summarized disparities across multiple subgroups defined by race-ethnic and socioeconomic position. METHODS: Data on breast cancer incidence, stage, mortality, and 5-year cause-specific probability of death (100 - survival) were obtained from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program and data on mammography screening from the National Health Interview Survey from 1987 to 2005. We used four area-socioeconomic groups based on the percentage of poverty in the county of residence (<10, 10-15, 15-20, +20%) and five race-ethnic groups (White, Black, Asian, American Indian, and Hispanic). We used summary measures of disparity based on both rate differences and rate ratios. RESULTS: From 1987 to 2004, area-socioeconomic disparities declined by 20% to 30% for incidence, stage at diagnosis, and 5-year cause-specific probability of death, and by roughly 100% for mortality, whether measured on the absolute or relative scale. In contrast, relative area-socioeconomic disparities in mammography use increased by 161%. Absolute race-ethnic disparities declined across all outcomes, with the largest reduction for mammography (56% decline). Relative race-ethnic disparities for mortality and 5-year cause-specific probability of death increased by 24% and 17%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests progress towards race-ethnic and area-socioeconomic disparity goals for breast cancer, especially when measured on the absolute scale. However, greater progress is needed to address increasing relative socioeconomic disparities in mammography and race-ethnic disparities in mortality and 5-year cause-specific probability of death.

Impact of geography on mammography use in California.

OBJECTIVE: Despite its benefit, about 30% of women report that they did not have a recent mammogram. We examine impact of distance, rural-urban residence, and other characteristics on mammography screening rates. METHODS: We linked data on 33,938 women aged 40-84 years from the 2003 and 2005 California Health Interview Survey with FDA data on the location of mammography facilities in California, and with socioeconomic and geographic variables from the 2000 Census. We use logistic regression models to estimate the impact of selected variables on a woman's probability of having had a recent mammogram and developed a new mapping scheme to help visualize differences in mammography use across California. RESULTS: Though distance to a facility did not impact a woman's probability of having had a recent mammogram, women who resided in urban areas had somewhat higher screening rates than those living in more rural areas, as displayed on our map. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that more research is needed on possible disparities in access to mammography between rural and non-rural areas in California. Therefore, data adequately powered to examine rural populations and to compare them with urban populations are needed.