Pathological correlations of [F-18]-AV-1451 imaging in non-alzheimer tauopathies.

OBJECTIVE: Recent studies have shown that positron emission tomography (PET) tracer AV-1451 exhibits high binding affinity for paired helical filament (PHF)-tau pathology in Alzheimer's brains. However, the ability of this ligand to bind to tau lesions in other tauopathies remains controversial. Our goal was to examine the correlation of in vivo and postmortem AV-1451 binding patterns in three autopsy-confirmed non-Alzheimer tauopathy cases. METHODS: We quantified in vivo retention of [F-18]-AV-1451 and performed autoradiography, [H-3]-AV-1451 binding assays, and quantitative tau measurements in postmortem brain samples from two progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) cases and a MAPT P301L mutation carrier. They all underwent [F-18]-AV-1451 PET imaging before death. RESULTS: The three subjects exhibited [F-18]-AV-1451 in vivo retention predominantly in basal ganglia and midbrain. Neuropathological examination confirmed the PSP diagnosis in the first two subjects; the MAPT P301L mutation carrier had an atypical tauopathy characterized by grain-like tau-containing neurites in gray and white matter with heaviest burden in basal ganglia. In all three cases, autoradiography failed to show detectable [F-18]-AV-1451 binding in multiple brain regions examined, with the exception of entorhinal cortex (reflecting incidental age-related neurofibrillary tangles) and neuromelanin-containing neurons in the substantia nigra (off-target binding). The lack of a consistent significant correlation between in vivo [F-18]-AV-1541 retention and postmortem in vitro binding and tau measures in these cases suggests that this ligand has low affinity for tau lesions primarily made of straight tau filaments. INTERPRETATION: AV-1451 may have limited utility for in vivo selective and reliable detection of tau aggregates in these non-Alzheimer tauopathies. ANN NEUROL 2017;81:117-128.

Validating novel tau positron emission tomography tracer [F-18]-AV-1451 (T807) on postmortem brain tissue.

OBJECTIVE: To examine region- and substrate-specific autoradiographic and in vitro binding patterns of positron emission tomography tracer [F-18]-AV-1451 (previously known as T807), tailored to allow in vivo detection of paired helical filament-tau-containing lesions, and to determine whether there is off-target binding to other amyloid/non-amyloid proteins. METHODS: We applied [F-18]-AV-1451 phosphor screen autoradiography, [F-18]-AV-1451 nuclear emulsion autoradiography, and [H-3]-AV-1451 in vitro binding assays to the study of postmortem samples from patients with a definite pathological diagnosis of Alzheimer disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration-tau, frontotemporal lobar degeneration-transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43), progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, cerebral amyloid angiopathy and elderly controls free of pathology. RESULTS: Our data suggest that [F-18]-AV-1451 strongly binds to tau lesions primarily made of paired helical filaments in Alzheimer brains (eg, intraneuronal and extraneuronal tangles and dystrophic neurites), but does not seem to bind to a significant extent to neuronal and glial inclusions mainly composed of straight tau filaments in non-Alzheimer tauopathy brains or to lesions containing ß-amyloid, α-synuclein, or TDP-43. [F-18]-AV-1451 off-target binding to neuromelanin- and melanin-containing cells and, to a lesser extent, to brain hemorrhagic lesions was identified. INTERPRETATION: Our data suggest that [F-18]-AV-1451 holds promise as a surrogate marker for the detection of brain tau pathology in the form of tangles and paired helical filament-tau-containing neurites in Alzheimer brains but also point to its relatively lower affinity for lesions primarily made of straight tau filaments in non-Alzheimer tauopathy cases and to the existence of some [F-18]-AV-1451 off-target binding. These findings provide important insights for interpreting in vivo patterns of [F-18]-AV-1451 retention.

Design, synthesis and structure-activity relationship of rhenium 2-arylbenzothiazoles as ß-amyloid plaque binding agents.

To continue our efforts toward the development of (99m)Tc PiB analogs, we have synthesized 24 neutral and lipophilic Re (as a surrogate of (99m)Tc) 2-arylbenzothiazoles, and explored their structure-activity relationship for binding to Aß1-40 fibrils. These Re complexes were designed and synthesized via the integrated approach, so their (99m)Tc analogs would have a greater chance of crossing the blood-brain barrier. While the lipophilicities (logPC18=1.59-3.53) of these Re 2-arylbenzothiazoles were all within suitable range, their binding affinities (Ki=30-617nM) to Aß1-40 fibrils varied widely depending on the selection and integration of the tetradentate chelator into the 2-phenylbenzothiazole pharmacophore. For potential clinical applications, further refinement to obtain Re 2-arylbenzothiazoles with better binding affinities (<10nM) will likely be needed. The integrated approach reported here to generate compact, neutral and lipophilic Re 2-arylbenzothiazoles could be applied to other potent pharmacophores as well to convert other current Aß PET tracers to their (99m)Tc analogs for more widespread application via the use of SPECT scanners.

Early AD pathology in a [C-11]PiB-negative case: a PiB-amyloid imaging, biochemical, and immunohistochemical study.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) deposits are detectable in the brain in vivo using positron emission tomography (PET) and [C-11]-labeled Pittsburgh Compound B ([C-11]PiB); however, the sensitivity of this technique is not well understood. In this study, we examined Aß pathology in an individual who had clinical diagnoses of probable dementia with Lewy bodies and possible Alzheimer's disease (AD) but with no detectable [C-11]PiB PET retention ([C-11]PiB(-)) when imaged 17 months prior to death. Brain samples were processed in parallel with region-matched samples from an individual with a clinical diagnosis of probable AD and a positive [C-11]PiB PET scan ([C-11]PiB(+)) when imaged 10 months prior to death. In the [C-11]PiB(-) case, Aß plaques were sparse, occupying less than 2% cortical area, and were weakly labeled with 6-CN-PiB, a highly fluorescent derivative of PiB. In contrast, Aß plaques occupied up to 12% cortical area in the [C-11]PiB(+) case, and were intensely labeled with 6-CN-PIB. The [C-11]PiB(-) case had low levels of [H-3]PiB binding (< 100 pmol/g) and Aß1-42 (< 500 pmol/g) concentration except in the frontal cortex where Aß1-42 values (788 pmol/g) approached cortical values in the [C-11]PiB(+) case (800-1, 700 pmol/g). In several cortical regions of the [C-11]PiB(-) case, Aß1-40 levels were within the range of cortical Aß1-40 values in the [C-11]PiB(+) case. Antemortem [C-11]PiB DVR values correlated well with region-matched postmortem measures of Aß1-42 and Aß1-40 in the [C-11]PiB(+), and with Aß1-42 only in the [C-11]PiB(-) case. The low ratios of [H-3]PiB binding levels to Aß concentrations and 6-CN-PiB to Aß plaque loads in the [C-11]PiB(-) case indicate that Aß pathology in the brain may be associated with low or undetectable levels of [C-11]PiB retention. Studies in greater numbers of [C-11]PiB PET autopsy cases are needed to define the Aß concentration and [H-3]PiB binding levels required to produce a positive [C-11]PiB PET signal.

Synthesis and beta-amyloid binding properties of rhenium 2-phenylbenzothiazoles.

As a first step toward the development of (99m)Tc PiB analogs, we have synthesized six neutral Re 2-phenylbenzothiazoles via pendant or integrated approach. These Re compounds bind to Abeta(1-40) fibrils with fairly good affinities (K(i)=10.0-88.6nM) and have moderate lipophilicities (logP(C18)=1.21-3.26). The Re compounds prepared via the integrated approach are smaller in size, and therefore their corresponding (99m)Tc analogs would have a greater chance of crossing the blood-brain barrier well. For potential clinical applications, further optimization on the structure-activity relationship to obtain Re 2-phenylbenzothiazoles with higher binding affinities (<10nM) might be needed. The integrated approach reported here to obtain neutral, compact and lipophilic Re 2-phenylbenzothiazoles could to be applied to other high affinity pharmacophores as well as to generate (99m)Tc analogs that could hold promise for extending the use of Abeta imaging in living human brain to many more clinical settings because they could be used with SPECT.

Post-mortem correlates of in vivo PiB-PET amyloid imaging in a typical case of Alzheimer's disease.

The positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer Pittsburgh Compound-B (PiB) binds with high affinity to beta-pleated sheet aggregates of the amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide in vitro. The in vivo retention of PiB in brains of people with Alzheimer's disease shows a regional distribution that is very similar to distribution of Abeta deposits observed post-mortem. However, the basis for regional variations in PiB binding in vivo, and the extent to which it binds to different types of Abeta-containing plaques and tau-containing neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), has not been thoroughly investigated. The present study examined 28 clinically diagnosed and autopsy-confirmed Alzheimer's disease subjects, including one Alzheimer's disease subject who had undergone PiB-PET imaging 10 months prior to death, to evaluate region- and substrate-specific binding of the highly fluorescent PiB derivative 6-CN-PiB. These data were then correlated with region-matched Abeta plaque load and peptide levels, [(3)H]PiB binding in vitro, and in vivo PET retention levels. We found that in Alzheimer's disease brain tissue sections, the preponderance of 6-CN-PiB binding is in plaques immunoreactive to either Abeta42 or Abeta40, and to vascular Abeta deposits. 6-CN-PiB labelling was most robust in compact/cored plaques in the prefrontal and temporal cortices. While diffuse plaques, including those in caudate nucleus and presubiculum, were less prominently labelled, amorphous Abeta plaques in the cerebellum were not detectable with 6-CN-PiB. Only a small subset of NFT were 6-CN-PiB positive; these resembled extracellular 'ghost' NFT. In Alzheimer's disease brain tissue homogenates, there was a direct correlation between [(3)H]PiB binding and insoluble Abeta peptide levels. In the Alzheimer's disease subject who underwent PiB-PET prior to death, in vivo PiB retention levels correlated directly with region-matched post-mortem measures of [(3)H]PiB binding, insoluble Abeta peptide levels, 6-CN-PiB- and Abeta plaque load, but not with measures of NFT. These results demonstrate, in a typical Alzheimer's disease brain, that PiB binding is highly selective for insoluble (fibrillar) Abeta deposits, and not for neurofibrillary pathology. The strong direct correlation of in vivo PiB retention with region-matched quantitative analyses of Abeta plaques in the same subject supports the validity of PiB-PET imaging as a method for in vivo evaluation of Abeta plaque burden.

Binding of the positron emission tomography tracer Pittsburgh compound-B reflects the amount of amyloid-beta in Alzheimer's disease brain but not in transgenic mouse brain.

During the development of in vivo amyloid imaging agents, an effort was made to use micro-positron emission tomography (PET) imaging in the presenilin-1 (PS1)/amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic mouse model of CNS amyloid deposition to screen new compounds and further study Pittsburgh Compound-B (PIB), a PET tracer that has been shown to be retained well in amyloid-containing areas of Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Unexpectedly, we saw no significant retention of PIB in this model even at 12 months of age when amyloid deposition in the PS1/APP mouse typically exceeds that seen in AD. This study describes a series of ex vivo and postmortem in vitro studies designed to explain this low retention. Ex vivo brain pharmacokinetic studies confirmed the low in vivo PIB retention observed in micro-PET experiments. In vitro binding studies showed that PS1/APP brain tissue contained less than one high-affinity (K(d) = 1-2 nm) PIB binding site per 1000 molecules of amyloid-beta (Abeta), whereas AD brain contained >500 PIB binding sites per 1000 molecules of Abeta. Synthetic Abeta closely resembled PS1/APP brain in having less than one high-affinity PIB binding site per 1000 molecules of Abeta, although the characteristics of the few high-affinity PIB binding sites found on synthetic Abeta were very similar to those found in AD brain. We hypothesize that differences in the time course of deposition or tissue factors present during deposition lead to differences in secondary structure between Abeta deposited in AD brain and either synthetic Abeta or Abeta deposited in PS1/APP brain.

X-34 labeling of abnormal protein aggregates during the progression of Alzheimer's disease.

Postmortem pathological diagnosis and basic research investigations of neurodegenerative disorders rely on histochemical staining procedures developed specifically to visualize abnormal protein conformation. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), two major pathological hallmarks are required to confirm the clinical diagnosis. Both consist of abnormally aggregated proteins that share the structural and histological properties common to all amyloid deposits. Amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) of extracellular senile plaques (SP) and hyperphosphorylated tau of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) are assembled in the abnormal beta-pleated sheet (amyloid-like) structural conformation that can be visualized with histological staining procedures using Congo red or its derivatives. These histochemical dyes bind amyloid with high affinity and allow easy detection of amyloid structure in postmortem brain samples. This chapter focuses on the development and application of a histological protocol using the compound X-34, a highly fluorescent derivative of Congo red, for sensitive detection of pathological amyloid structures in histopathological investigations of postmortem brain tissue. This procedure provides a simple and effective method for detailed fluorescent visualization of the localization and distribution of the majority of currently known major histopathological structures in AD, including compact cored, neuritic, and diffuse-appearing SP, NFT, dystrophic neurites, neuropil threads, and cerebrovascular amyloidosis.

The binding of 2-(4'-methylaminophenyl)benzothiazole to postmortem brain homogenates is dominated by the amyloid component.

2-(4'-methylaminophenyl)benzothiazole (BTA-1) is an uncharged derivative of thioflavin-T that has high affinity for Abeta fibrils and shows very good brain entry and clearance. In this study, we asked whether BTA-1, at concentrations typical of those achieved during positron emission tomography (PET) studies, could specifically bind to amyloid deposits in the complex milieu of human brain or whether amyloid binding was overshadowed by nonspecific binding, found even in brains that did not contain amyloid deposits. We quantitatively assessed [3H]BTA-1 binding to crude homogenates of postmortem brain obtained from nine Alzheimer's disease (AD) subjects, eight controls, and six subjects with non-AD dementia. BTA-1 binding was >10-fold higher in AD brain, and the majority (94%) of the binding was specific (displaceable). High-affinity [3H]BTA-1 was observed only in AD brain gray matter and was not present in control brain gray matter, AD brain white matter, or cerebellum. The K(d) of [3H]BTA-1 for binding to AD brain (5.8 +/- 0.90 nm) was very similar to the K(d) for binding to synthetic Abeta fibrils. In addition, the K(i) of various BTA analogs for inhibition of [3H]BTA-1 binding to AD brain homogenates was very similar to their K(i) for inhibition of [3H]BTA-1 binding to synthetic Abeta fibrils. Nanomolar concentrations of [3H]BTA-1 did not appear to bind to neurofibrillary tangles. Finally, BTA-1 did not appear to bind significantly to common neuroreceptors or transporter sites. These data suggest that the binding of BTA-1 to AD brain is dominated by a specific interaction with Abeta amyloid deposits.

An Abeta sequestration approach using non-antibody Abeta binding agents.

Amyloid beta (Abeta) has been considered as a primary cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Abeta lowering approaches have been tested. Active immunization against Abeta is one of several promising Abeta-lowering approaches. Two mechanisms have been proposed: enhancement of microglial phagocytosis and Abeta sequestration (also called "peripheral sink"). We hypothesized that Abeta sequestration without immune modulation is sufficient to reduce the brain Abeta load and have demonstrated effective sequestration with Abeta binding agents that do not stimulate an immune reaction. Recent reports from other groups showed two other non-immune related Abeta binding agents, which have no structural relation to compounds we previously tested, reduced brain Abeta after peripheral administration. Congo red is a chemically synthesized small molecule that has binding affinity to Abeta. In the present study, we tested three Congo red derivatives in Abeta plaque-forming mice at an early pathological stage. Unfortunately, peripheral administration for three weeks did not substantially alter brain Abeta load. Optimized Abeta binding agents with high affinity to soluble Abeta are necessary for the sequestration approach.

Imaging Abeta plaques in living transgenic mice with multiphoton microscopy and methoxy-X04, a systemically administered Congo red derivative.

The identification of amyloid deposits in living Alzheimer disease (AD) patients is important for both early diagnosis and for monitoring the efficacy of newly developed anti-amyloid therapies. Methoxy-X04 is a derivative of Congo red and Chrysamine-G that contains no acid groups and is therefore smaller and much more lipophilic than Congo red or Chrysamine-G. Methoxy-X04 retains in vitro binding affinity for amyloid beta (Abeta) fibrils (Ki = 26.8 nM) very similar to that of Chrysamine-G (Ki = 25.3 nM). Methoxy-X04 is fluorescent and stains plaques, tangles, and cerebrovascular amyloid in postmortem sections of AD brain with good specificity. Using multiphoton microscopy to obtain high-resolution (1 microm) fluorescent images from the brains of living PSI/APP mice, individual plaques could be distinguished within 30 to 60 min after a single i.v. injection of 5 to 10 mg/kg methoxy-X04. A single i.p. injection of 10 mg/kg methoxy-X04 also produced high contrast images of plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid in PSI/APP mouse brain. Complementary quantitative studies using tracer doses of carbon- 11-labeled methoxy-X04 show that it enters rat brain in amounts that suggest it is a viable candidate as a positron emission tomography (PET) amyloid-imaging agent for in vivo human studies.

Targeting prion amyloid deposits in vivo.

The diagnosis of prion diseases in humans is challenging due to a lack of specific and sensitive non-invasive tests. Many forms of human prion disease including variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome, and 10% of sporadic CJD cases are associated with amyloid deposition. Several positron emission tomography (PET) ligands have recently been developed to directly image beta-amyloid associated with Alzheimer disease. One of them, methoxy-X04, is a fluorescent derivative of Congo red with high binding affinity toward amyloid fibrils and good blood-brain barrier permeability. Using methoxy-X04, we investigated whether amyloid-targeting ligands can be also employed for direct imaging of amyloid deposits associated with some prion diseases. Such a method could potentially become a novel diagnostic approach for these conditions. Studies were performed on MB mice infected with the 87V mouse-adapted scrapie strain. Labeling of PrP amyloid plaques in brains of presymptomatic and symptomatic mice was demonstrated using in vivo transcranial two-photon microscopy after systemic administration of methoxy-X04. During real-time imaging, PrP amyloid deposits could be clearly distinguished 15 min after intravenous administration of methoxy-X04. The ligand showed rapid clearance from brain areas that did not contain amyloid deposits. PrP amyloid deposits could also be detected by direct application of methoxy-X04 on cerebellar sections from GSS patients. These results suggest that methoxy-X04 or similar derivatives could be used as PET imaging agents to improve the diagnosis of human prion diseases associated with amyloid deposition.

Synthesis and evaluation of 11C-labeled 6-substituted 2-arylbenzothiazoles as amyloid imaging agents.

The synthesis and evaluation of a series of neutral analogues of thioflavin-T (termed BTA's) with high affinities for aggregated amyloid and a wide range of lipophilicities are reported. Radiolabeling with high specific activity [(11)C]methyl iodide provided derivatives for in vivo evaluation. Brain entry in control mice and baboons was high for nearly all of the analogues at early times after injection, but the clearance rate of radioactivity from brain tissue varied by more than 1 order of magnitude. Upon the basis of its rapid clearance from normal mouse and baboon brain tissues, [N-methyl-(11)C]2-(4'-methylaminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzothiazole (or [(11)C]6-OH-BTA-1) was selected as the lead compound for further evaluation. The radiolabeled metabolites of [(11)C]6-OH-BTA-1 were polar and did not enter brain. The binding affinities of [N-methyl-(3)H]6-OH-BTA-1 for homogenates of postmortem AD frontal cortex and synthetic Abeta(1-40) fibrils were similar (K(d) = 1.4 nM and 4.7 nM, respectively), but the ligand-to-Abeta peptide binding stoichiometry was approximately 400-fold higher for AD brain than Abeta(1-40) fibrils. Staining of AD frontal cortex tissue sections with 6-OH-BTA-1 indicated the selective binding of the compound to amyloid plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid. The encouraging in vitro and in vivo properties of [(11)C]6-OH-BTA-1 support the choice of this derivative for further evaluation in human subject studies of brain Abeta deposition.

Synthesis and evaluation of 2-(3'-iodo-4'-aminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzothiazole for in vivo quantitation of amyloid deposits in Alzheimer's disease.

A potent and brain permeable amyloid ligand has been identified as a lead compound capable of I-123/125-labelling for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging. In this study, we report the synthesis and I-125-radiolabelling of Compound 6 and its in vitro and in vivo properties. Compound 6 [2-(3'-iodo-4'-aminophenyl)-6-hydroxybenzothiazole] bound to synthetic A beta(1-40) fibrils in a saturable manner, exhibiting an affinity (Ki) of 11+/-1.1 nM in a competitive binding assay using a tritiated thioflavin T analog ([3H]BTA-1) as radioligand. [125I]6 binding to synthetic A beta(1-40) fibrils fit a single-site model. [125I]6 exhibited several-fold higher binding to homogenates of frontal cortex from post-mortem Alzheimer's disease brain relative to age-matched control brain homogenates. No difference in binding was observed in cerebellum. The ratio of radioactivity concentration between frontal cortex and cerebellum was 6-fold higher in AD brain homogenates than the age-matched control. [125I]6 also readily penetrated the blood-brain barrier in normal control mice with an average radioactivity concentration of 6.43+/-0.62%ID/g detected in the whole brain at 2 min post i.v. injection. At 30 min, the radioactivity concentration decreased to 0.40+/-0.05%ID/g, indicating good clearance in the absence of amyloid deposits in the brain.

Development of a PET/SPECT agent for amyloid imaging in Alzheimer's disease.

In the search for a cure for Alzheimer's disease (AD), efforts have been focused on preventing or reversing amyloid deposition in the brain. Efficacy evaluation of these antiamyloid therapies would greatly benefit from development of a tool for the in vivo detection and quantitation of amyloid deposits in the brain. Toward this goal, we have developed a series of benzothiazole derivatives as amyloid-imaging agents for positron emission tomography (PET). To extend the potential of these amyloid-imaging agents for routine clinical studies, we also set out to develop iodinated benzothiazole derivatives that could be used as dual agents for either PET or the complementary single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Such dual agents would permit PET or SPECT studies using radiotracers with the same chemical identity but labeled with different radionuclides. This would facilitate the validation of clinical SPECT studies, based on quantitative PET studies. In this work we report the synthesis and biological evaluation of a potent, selective, and brain-permeable benzothiazole compound, 2-(3'-iodo-4'-methylaminophenyl)-6-hydroxy-benzothialzole, termed 6-OH-BTA-1-3'-I (4), which can be radiolabeled with either positron-emitting carbon-11 or single photon-emitting iodine-125/iodine-123. The synthesis and radiolabeling of [125I]4 or [11C]4 were achieved through direct iodination with sodium [125I]iodide in the presence of chloramine T or through radiomethylation with [11C]CH3I. In vitro amyloid binding assays indicated that [125I]4 bound to amyloid deposits in a saturable manner and exhibited affinities in the nanomolar concentration range. Binding studies of [125I]4 to postmortem human brain homogenates also showed preference of binding to frontal cortex in the AD homogenates relative to age-matched control homogenates or cerebellum from either AD or control. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies in normal mice following iv injection of [11C]4 indicated that the radioligand entered the brain readily at early time points and cleared from the brain rapidly at later time points with a 2- to 30-min ratio >3. These results suggest that the new radioiodinated benzothiazole ligand might be useful as a surrogate marker for the in vivo quantitation of amyloid deposition in human brain for use with either PET or SPECT.

Effects of lipophilicity on the affinity and nonspecific binding of iodinated benzothiazole derivatives.

Aseries of novel 2-aryl benzothiazole derivates substituted with iodine in different positions have been synthesized as amyloid-binding ligands. The affinity of these compounds for synthetic amyloid beta (1-40) (Abeta[1-40]) fibrils was determined. Introduction of the iodo group in the position ortho to an amino group increased the binding affinity, whereas the iodination ortho to a hydroxyl group decreased the binding affinity. Selected compounds with high binding affinity and moderate lipophilicity (logP values, 1.65-3.90) were radiolabeled and evaluated in normal mice for brain uptake and clearance. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies showed a strong correlation between the lipophilicity of the iodinated compounds and the binding affinity as well as nonspecific binding. As the lipophilicity increased, the affinity for Abeta(1-40) fibrils improved; however, nonspecific binding in mouse brain reflected by low brain clearance also increased with increasing lipophilicity. These results provide important SAR information to guide the development of novel amyloid-binding agents and provide further insights into the molecular interaction between 2-aryl benzothiazole ligands and Abeta fibrils.

Chrysamine G and its derivative reduce amyloid beta-induced neurotoxicity in mice.

The neurotoxicity of amyloid beta (Abeta) is widely believed to play a seminal role in neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease. We examined the effect of Chrysamine G (CG) on such neurotoxicity using the specific measurement of surviving neurons. CG was found to reduce the neurodegeneration induced by both the active short fragment of Abeta(25-35) and full-sized Abeta(1-40). In this study, we synthesized a new chemical compound from a monovalent structure of CG (hCG), with a lower affinity for Abeta, and compared its activity with that of CG. Both CG and hCG were found to be equally efficacious in reducing Abeta-induced neuronal death at a concentration of 0.1-1 microM, indicating that the mechanism of action for CG was not due to its chelating activity, but rather due to its anti-oxidant activity.

A lipophilic thioflavin-T derivative for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of amyloid in brain.

The synthesis of a new lipophilic thioflavin-T analogue (2-[4' -(methylamino)phenyl]benzothiazole, 6) with high affinity for amyloid is reported. Intravenous injection of [(11)C]-labeled 6 in control mice resulted in high brain uptake. Amyloid deposits were imaged with multiphoton microscopy in the brains of living transgenic mice following the systemic injection of unlabeled 6. [(11)C]6 is a promising amyloid imaging agent for Alzheimer's disease.

Imaging brain amyloid in Alzheimer's disease with Pittsburgh Compound-B.

This report describes the first human study of a novel amyloid-imaging positron emission tomography (PET) tracer, termed Pittsburgh Compound-B (PIB), in 16 patients with diagnosed mild AD and 9 controls. Compared with controls, AD patients typically showed marked retention of PIB in areas of association cortex known to contain large amounts of amyloid deposits in AD. In the AD patient group, PIB retention was increased most prominently in frontal cortex (1.94-fold, p = 0.0001). Large increases also were observed in parietal (1.71-fold, p = 0.0002), temporal (1.52-fold, p = 0.002), and occipital (1.54-fold, p = 0.002) cortex and the striatum (1.76-fold, p = 0.0001). PIB retention was equivalent in AD patients and controls in areas known to be relatively unaffected by amyloid deposition (such as subcortical white matter, pons, and cerebellum). Studies in three young (21 years) and six older healthy controls (69.5 +/- 11 years) showed low PIB retention in cortical areas and no significant group differences between young and older controls. In cortical areas, PIB retention correlated inversely with cerebral glucose metabolism determined with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose. This relationship was most robust in the parietal cortex (r = -0.72; p = 0.0001). The results suggest that PET imaging with the novel tracer, PIB, can provide quantitative information on amyloid deposits in living subjects.