Potential sex differences in human milk fatty acids and their association with atopic dermatitis: Results of the Ulm SPATZ health study.

BACKGROUND: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in human milk are essential in immune system maturation and might play a role in the development of allergic conditions, such as atopic dermatitis (AD) in infants. Immune system responses are modulated by sex, but data on the sex-specific associations with PUFAs are limited. We therefore explored sex-specific differences in human milk PUFAs and their association with AD up to 2 years. METHODS: PUFAs were measured in human milk samples from the Ulm SPATZ Health Study at 6 weeks (n = 512) and 6 months (n = 367). Associations with AD up to 2 years were evaluated using crude and multivariable logistic regression. Interactions between infant sex and PUFAs were explored by including the product term. RESULTS: No significant associations were observed with 6-week data. At 6 months, the median relative proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was significantly higher in milk for female than male infants (p = .001). Female infants whose milk was lower in quintile proportions of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) at 6 months had lower odds of AD compared to males [first vs. fifth quintile OR (95% confidence interval): 0.13 (0.02, 0.66), p = .02]. This interaction was not significant when correcting for multiple testing (α threshold: p = .004). No other statistically significant associations were observed. CONCLUSION: Individual quintile PUFA proportions in human milk were not associated with AD, overall and in a sex-specific manner. More comprehensive and statistically powered longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether potential sex differences in human milk, if any, could be of clinical relevance for infants including the investigation of mediating factors.

Effect of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans on abundance of Bifidobacterium and on bowel function: a systematic review with meta-analyses.

Inulin-type fructans are considered to stimulate the growth of beneficial microorganisms, like Bifidobacterium in the gut and support health. However, both the fructan source and chemical structure may modify these effects. A systematic review was conducted to assess the effects of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans consumed either in specific foods or as dietary supplements on abundance of Bifidobacterium in the gut and on health-related outcomes. Three electronic databases and two clinical trial registries were systematically searched until January 2021. Two authors independently selected randomized controlled trials that investigated with a protocol of minimum seven days supplementation the effect of chicory-derived inulin-type fructans on Bifidobacterium abundance in any population. Meta-analyses with random-effects model were conducted on Bifidobacterium abundance and bowel function parameters. We evaluated risk of bias using Cochrane RoB tool. Chicory-derived inulin-type fructans at a dose of 3-20 g/day significantly increased Bifidobacterium abundance in participants with an age range from 0 to 83 years (standardized mean difference: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.58-1.08; p < 0.01; 50 studies; 2525 participants). Significant bifidogenic effects were observed in healthy individuals and in populations with health impairments, except gastrointestinal disorders. Significant beneficial effects on bowel function parameters were observed in healthy subjects. Chicory-derived inulin-type fructans may have significant bifidogenic effects and may beneficially influence bowel function in healthy individuals. PROSPERO registration number CRD42020162892.

Changes in human milk fatty acid composition and maternal lifestyle-related factors over a decade: a comparison between the two Ulm Birth Cohort Studies.

Human milk fatty acid composition varies during lactation and is influenced by maternal diet, maternal lifestyle-related factors and genetic background. This is one of the first studies to investigate a period effect, that is, the impact of lifestyle-related changes on human milk fatty acid composition, in two different cohorts. Lactating women were recruited from the general population a decade apart in Ulm, Germany, using similar methodology. Human milk samples collected 6 weeks postpartum were analysed (Ulm Birth Cohort Study (UBCS (2000)), n 567; Ulm SPATZ Health Study (SPATZ (2012)), n 458). Centred log ratio transformation was applied to fatty acid data. Principal component analysis was used to determine study-dependent fatty acid profiles. A general linear model was used to determine the study (or period) effect on fatty acid profiles adjusting for duration of gestation, age, education, delivery mode, smoking and pre-pregnancy BMI. Two principal components were retained (PC1 and PC2). PC1 was associated with UBCS, while PC2 was associated with SPATZ. PC1 comprised high SFA, and low MUFA, n-6 and n-3 long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA). The inverse was true for PC2. Although human milk remains a source of essential fatty acids, infants could be at risk of inadequate n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA intake through human milk. The differences in the human milk fatty acid profiles also reflect changes in maternal dietary habits in the more recent cohort, which may comprise lower intakes of dietary trans-fatty acids and SFA and higher intakes of vegetable oils.

Saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in membranes are determined by the gene expression of their metabolizing enzymes SCD1 and ELOVL6 regulated by the intake of dietary fat.

PURPOSE: We investigated the effect of dietary fats on the incorporation of saturated (SAFAs) and monounsaturated dietary fatty acids (MUFAs) into plasma phospholipids and the regulation of the expression of lipid-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. METHODS: Mice were fed different diets containing commonly used dietary fats/oils (coconut fat, margarine, fish oil, sunflower oil, or olive oil) for 4 weeks (n = 6 per diet group). In a second experiment, mice (n = 6 per group) were treated for 7 days with synthetic ligands to activate specific nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) and the hepatic gene expression of CYP26A1 was investigated. Hepatic gene expression of stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1), elongase 6 (ELOVL6), and CYP26A1 was examined using quantitative real-time PCR (QRT-PCR). Fatty acid composition in mouse plasma phospholipids was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC). RESULTS: We found significantly reduced hepatic gene expression of SCD1 and ELOVL6 after the fish oil diet compared with the other diets. This resulted in reduced enzyme-specific fatty acid ratios, e.g., 18:1n9/18:0 for SCD1 and 18:0/16:0 and 18:1n7/16:1n7 for ELOVL6 in plasma phospholipids. Furthermore, CYP26A1 a retinoic acid receptor-specific target was revealed as a new player mediating the suppressive effect of fish oil-supplemented diet on SCD1 and ELOVL6 hepatic gene expression. CONCLUSION: Plasma levels of MUFAs and SAFAs strongly reflect an altered hepatic fatty acid-metabolizing enzyme expression after supplementation with different dietary fats/oils.

The effect of diet on the physical and mental development of children: views of parents and teachers in four European countries.

Although the impact of diet on physical health is an important public health issue, less attention has been devoted to the relationship between nutrition and children's mental development. The views of parents and teachers about the extent to which diet affects physical and mental development of children were compared in four European countries. An online questionnaire (developed in English and translated) was circulated through a market research agency. Participants were parents or teachers of children aged 4-10 years without learning or behavioural issues. Questionnaires were returned by 1606 parents (401 in England, Germany and Hungary; 403 in Spain) and 403 teachers (100 in each country, except for 103 in Hungary). Teachers were older than parents (35·3 % v. 18·3 % over 45 years; P<0·001) and less likely to smoke (15·9 % v. 26·3 %, P<0·001). There was no difference between the proportions of parents and teachers who felt that a child's physical development depended very much/extremely (v. moderately/slightly/not at all) on diet (overall 79·8 %). Lower proportions of both groups thought that mental development was very much/extremely influenced by diet (67·4 %). In the regression modelling, believing that physical and mental performance was greatly influenced by diet was significantly and positively associated with living in Hungary, scoring higher on a measure of General Health Interest and (parents only) level of education attained. Differences existed among countries in most views. Lower levels of awareness of the importance of diet for brain development and cognition (compared with physical health outcomes) indicate the potential for educating consumers, especially parents with lower educational attainment.

On the relationship between head circumference, brain size, prenatal long-chain PUFA/5-methyltetrahydrofolate supplementation and cognitive abilities during childhood.

Head circumference in infants has been reported to predict brain size, total grey matter volume (GMV) and neurocognitive development. However, it is unknown whether it has predictive value on regional and subcortical brain volumes. We aimed to explore the relationship between several head circumference measurements since birth and distributions of GMV and subcortical volumes at later childhood. We examined seventy-four, Caucasian, singleton, term-born infants born to mothers randomised to receive fish oil and/or 5-methyltetrahydrofolate or placebo prenatal supplementation. We assessed head circumference at birth and at 4 and 10 years of age and cognitive abilities at 7 years of age. We obtained brain MRI at 10 years of age, on which we performed voxel-based morphometry, cortical surface extraction and subcortical segmentation. Analyses were controlled for sex, age, height, weight, family status, laterality and total intracranial volume. Prenatal supplementation did not affect head circumference at any age, cognitive abilities or total brain volumes. Head circumference at 4 years presented the highest correlation with total GMV, white matter volume and brain surface area, and was also strongly associated with GMV of frontal, temporal and occipital areas, as well as with caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putamen and thalamus volumes. As relationships between brain volumes in childhood and several outcomes extend into adulthood, we have found that ages between 0 and 4 years as the optimal time for brain growth; postnatal factors might have the most relevant impact on structural maturation of certain cortical areas and subcortical nuclei, independent of prenatal supplementation.

Inulin-Type Fructan Supplementation of 3- to 6-Year-Old Children Is Associated with Higher Fecal Bifidobacterium Concentrations and Fewer Febrile Episodes Requiring Medical Attention.

Background: Inulin-type fructans used in formula have been shown to promote microbiota composition and stool consistency closer to those of breastfed infants and to have beneficial effects on fever occurrence, diarrhea, and incidence of infections requiring antibiotic treatment in infants. Objectives: The primary study aim was to explore whether prophylactic supplementation with prebiotic fructans is able to influence the frequency of infectious diseases in kindergarten children during a winter period. A secondary objective was to ascertain the effect on the intestinal microbiota. Methods: 142 boys and 128 girls aged 3-6 y were randomly allocated to consume 6 g/d fructans or maltodextrin for 24 wk. At baseline, stool samples were collected for microbiota analysis and anthropometric measurements were made. During the intervention period diagnoses were recorded by physicians, whereas disease symptoms, kindergarten absenteeism, dietary habits, and stool consistency were recorded by parents. Baseline measurements were repeated at wk 24. Results: In total 219 children finished the study. Both the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium (P < 0.001) and that of Lactobacillus (P = 0.014) were 19.9% and 7.8% higher, respectively, post data normalization, in stool samples of children receiving fructans as compared with those of controls at wk 24. This was accompanied by significantly softer stools within the normal range in the prebiotic group from wk 12 onwards. The incidence of febrile episodes requiring medical attention [0.65 ± 1.09 compared with 0.9 ± 1.11 infections/(24 wk × child), P = 0.04] and that of sinusitis (0.01 ± 0.1 compared with 0.06 ± 0.25, P = 0.03) were significantly lower in the prebiotic group. The number of infectious episodes and their duration reported by parents did not differ significantly between the 2 intervention groups. Conclusions: Prebiotic supplementation modified the composition of the intestinal microbiota and resulted in softer stools in kindergarten-aged children. The reduction in febrile episodes requiring medical attention supports the concept of further studies on prebiotics in young children. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03241355.

Importance of mental performance in parental choice of food for children aged 4-10 years: a study in four European countries.

OBJECTIVE: Typically, attention focuses on how nutrition affects physical health. The present study investigated the importance that parents attach to the impact of diet on mental performance when choosing food for their child. DESIGN: Questionnaire. SETTING: Four European countries. SUBJECTS: Parents of children aged 4-10 years (n 1574): England (n 397), Germany (n 389), Hungary (n 398) and Spain (n 390). RESULTS: Most parents (80-85 %) considered the effect of food on four elements of mental performance (child's ability to learn, attention, behaviour, mood) to be moderately, very, extremely (v. slightly, not at all) important in food choices; over 90 % considered healthiness of food and making food appealing to their child important; 79·8 % cost; 76·8 % convenience. Belief that food affects mental performance was 57·4 % (ability to learn), 60·5 % (attention); less than 40 % of parents agreed they were aware which foods had an effect. Parents with lower general interest in healthy eating were less likely to consider the effect of food on mental performance elements as important. Respondents from Germany were more likely to rate mental performance as important (except behaviour); those in Hungary less likely. The most important influence on parents' decisions about feeding their child was their own experience, except Spain, where family/friends/health professionals were more important. CONCLUSIONS: Nutrition affects brain development and cognitive functioning. Low prioritisation of the effect of food on mental performance indicates potential for educating parents.

Severe acrocyanosis precipitated by cold agglutinin secondary to infection with Mycoplasma pneumoniae in a pediatric patient.

This is the first report describing a severe form of cold agglutinin-induced acrocyanosis with cutaneous necrosis after Mycoplasma infection in a 9-year-old patient without any other severe symptoms and laboratory alterations. We also present the results of two non-invasive methods used to determine the viability of tissues, degree of tissue perfusion impairment, and the responsiveness of the microvasculature. Laser Doppler flowmetry and laser speckle contrast imaging, both suitable to measure tissue blood perfusion non-invasively, have been used in the diagnosis and follow-up of various peripheral vascular diseases. In our patient, we demonstrated remarkably reduced microcirculation before the treatment and a significant perfusion increase in the acral regions after pentoxifylline therapy. The investigational techniques were useful tools to assess and quantify the severity of peripheral perfusion disturbances and to monitor the efficacy of the treatment in our patient.

[Motivations for foreign employment and carrier change among Hungarian physiotherapists]. / Külföldi munkavállalás és pályaelhagyási indítékok a magyar gyógytornászok körében.

INTRODUCTION: An increasing motivation can be experienced among professional workers within the Hungarian healthcare system towards foreign employment or career change. AIM: The aim of the authors was to assess Hungarian physiotherapists' migration and career changing behaviour and to understand the underlying factors. METHOD: A national survey in Hungary from April to August, 2014 was performed. Only physiotherapists who practice in Hungary were included (n = 215). RESULTS: The results suggest that age (p<0.05) and the rate of financial appreciation experienced in the workplace (p<0.01) significantly affect the appearance of migratory thoughts. Those physiotherapists who do not feel themselves financially appreciated, are 55 times more likely to search for employment outside the country's borders [OR = 55.28 CI (95%) = 18.85 to 161.12]. The most common causes for that are unfavourable financial (p<0.01) and moral recognition (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In order to prevent our already highly-qualified colleagues from leaving the country or from considering to leave the profession we should concentrate on increasing the financial and moral appreciation of the profession within the Hungarian healthcare system.

Low n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in newly diagnosed celiac disease in children with preexisting type 1 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: Fat malabsorption can occur in celiac disease (CD) owing to villus atrophy and inflammation of small intestinal mucosa. Abnormal fatty acid (FA) status of intestinal mucosa in children with CD was reported earlier. Previously we found significantly reduced availability of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) in children and young adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). The aim of this study was to investigate FAs in plasma lipid classes in children with newly diagnosed CD with or without preexisting DM. METHODS: FA composition of plasma samples of children with untreated CD only (n = 20) and with preexisting DM (CDDM, n = 8) were compared with those of healthy controls (n = 21). Detailed analysis of phospholipid, triacylglycerol, and sterol ester FAs was performed by high-resolution capillary gas-liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Significantly decreased docosapentaenoic (C22:5n-3), docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3), n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), and n-3 LCPUFA values were found in CDDM group compared with controls and patients with CD. When compared with healthy controls, no significant difference was found in plasma FAs of children with newly diagnosed CD only. CONCLUSIONS: Children with CDDM showed marked signs of reduced availability of n-3 PUFA and n-3 LCPUFA in circulating lipids. Although different tissues express membrane FAs differently, our present study suggests that CD on its own does not necessarily lead to detectable disturbances of essential FA metabolism in plasma and supports the concept that DM has significant impact on plasma FA composition in children.

Arsenic in rice: a cause for concern.

Inorganic arsenic intake is likely to affect long-term health. High concentrations are found in some rice-based foods and drinks widely used in infants and young children. In order to reduce exposure, we recommend avoidance of rice drinks for infants and young children. For all of the rice products, strict regulation should be enforced regarding arsenic content. Moreover, infants and young children should consume a balanced diet including a variety of grains as carbohydrate sources. Although rice protein-based infant formulas are an option for infants with cows' milk protein allergy, the inorganic arsenic content should be declared and the potential risks should be considered when using these products.

Contribution of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to human milk is still low in Hungarian mothers.

UNLABELLED: Maternal diet has decisive influence on the fatty acid composition of human milk. Fifteen years ago, we found outstandingly low contribution of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to human milk in a small group of Hungarian mothers. The major aim of the present study was to investigate whether DHA status in human milk in Hungary changed during the last 15 years. We aimed to examine the fatty acid composition of human milk at three different stages of lactation (3rd day, 6th week, and 6th month) in healthy Hungarian mothers. Fatty acid composition of human milk lipids was determined by gas chromatograph with flame ionization detector. Contribution of arachidonic acid to the fatty acid composition of human milk significantly decreased during lactation (0.91 [0.38] in colostrum, 0.53 [0.17] at 6th week, and 0.46 [0.13] at 6th month, p < 0.01). The contribution of DHA significantly decreased from colostrum to the 6th week of lactation (0.29 [0.12] and 0.14 [0.04], p < 0.01), without further changes by 6 months (0.12 [0.10]). CONCLUSION: The contribution of DHA to the fatty acid composition of mature human milk in Hungarian mothers is still among the lowest values ever reported in the literature.

Iron requirements of infants and toddlers.

Iron deficiency (ID) is the most common micronutrient deficiency worldwide and young children are a special risk group because their rapid growth leads to high iron requirements. Risk factors associated with a higher prevalence of ID anemia (IDA) include low birth weight, high cow's-milk intake, low intake of iron-rich complementary foods, low socioeconomic status, and immigrant status. The aim of this position paper was to review the field and provide recommendations regarding iron requirements in infants and toddlers, including those of moderately or marginally low birth weight. There is no evidence that iron supplementation of pregnant women improves iron status in their offspring in a European setting. Delayed cord clamping reduces the risk of ID. There is insufficient evidence to support general iron supplementation of healthy European infants and toddlers of normal birth weight. Formula-fed infants up to 6 months of age should receive iron-fortified infant formula, with an iron content of 4 to 8 mg/L (0.6-1.2 mg(-1) · kg(-1) · day(-1)). Marginally low-birth-weight infants (2000-2500 g) should receive iron supplements of 1-2 mg(-1) · kg(-1) · day(-1). Follow-on formulas should be iron-fortified; however, there is not enough evidence to determine the optimal iron concentration in follow-on formula. From the age of 6 months, all infants and toddlers should receive iron-rich (complementary) foods, including meat products and/or iron-fortified foods. Unmodified cow's milk should not be fed as the main milk drink to infants before the age of 12 months and intake should be limited to <500 mL/day in toddlers. It is important to ensure that this dietary advice reaches high-risk groups such as socioeconomically disadvantaged families and immigrant families.

Gaps in meeting nutrient needs in healthy toddlers.

BACKGROUND: Among the potentially critical nutrients for toddlers, vitamin D, iron and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) have recently gained special attention. A high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency was reported worldwide, affecting also small children. Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia was described to be outstanding among children and prevalent in toddlers. The results of the few available studies investigating LC-PUFA intake in toddlers indicate that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake in this age group fails to agree with current nutritional recommendations. Key Messages: Supplementation of toddlers with vitamin D in form of drops or tablets is already part of feeding recommendations in the majority of European countries. It is the responsibility of practitioners to work on the effective implementation of these recommendations in practice. Untoward nutritional habits, but also other factors such as socioeconomic background, are predictors of iron deficiency. Toddlers should receive iron-rich complementary foods. The consumption of fish should be encouraged already with complementary feeding to improve the DHA supply to infants and toddlers. In Hungary, DHA levels in breast milk are spectacularly lower than median DHA levels usually reported in the literature; therefore, more awareness of the importance of DHA intake during pregnancy should be created. CONCLUSION: There is a need to address potentially critical nutrients for toddlers and young children in Europe, such as vitamin D, iron and n-3 PUFA.

Increased FADS2-derived n-6 PUFAs and reduced n-3 PUFAs in plasma of atopic dermatitis patients.

Fatty acid concentrations, in particular n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), have been described to be dysregulated in atopic dermatitis (AD) patients. The role of genetic polymorphisms of fatty acid enzymes in AD is controversial. We determined in a Hungarian cohort of healthy volunteers (n = 20) and AD patients (n = 20) triglyceride-, sterol- and phospholipid-bound fatty acids in the plasma, mRNA expression of fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2) and stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and FADS2 concentrations in plasma. We observed higher levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, 16:1 versus 16:0 ratios in phospholipids, triglycerides and sterol esters in patients compared to healthy subjects. In addition higher levels of the FADS2-derived n-6 PUFAs γ-linolenic acid and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid were observed in PBMCs of patients as well as lower levels of n-3 PUFAs. We conclude that the increased expression of FADS2 in PBMCs, as a representative tissue accessible from human blood of AD patients, might be responsible for higher levels of FADS2-derived n-6 PUFAs and lower n-3 PUFA levels in patients.

EURRECA-Estimating zinc requirements for deriving dietary reference values.

Zinc was selected as a priority micronutrient for EURRECA, because there is significant heterogeneity in the Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) across Europe. In addition, the prevalence of inadequate zinc intakes was thought to be high among all population groups worldwide, and the public health concern is considerable. In accordance with the EURRECA consortium principles and protocols, a series of literature reviews were undertaken in order to develop best practice guidelines for assessing dietary zinc intake and zinc status. These were incorporated into subsequent literature search strategies and protocols for studies investigating the relationships between zinc intake, status and health, as well as studies relating to the factorial approach (including bioavailability) for setting dietary recommendations. EMBASE (Ovid), Cochrane Library CENTRAL, and MEDLINE (Ovid) databases were searched for studies published up to February 2010 and collated into a series of Endnote databases that are available for the use of future DRV panels. Meta-analyses of data extracted from these publications were performed where possible in order to address specific questions relating to factors affecting dietary recommendations. This review has highlighted the need for more high quality studies to address gaps in current knowledge, in particular the continued search for a reliable biomarker of zinc status and the influence of genetic polymorphisms on individual dietary requirements. In addition, there is a need to further develop models of the effect of dietary inhibitors of zinc absorption and their impact on population dietary zinc requirements.

Effects of fish oil supplementation on the fatty acid profile in erythrocyte membrane and plasma phospholipids of pregnant women and their offspring: a randomised controlled trial.

We aimed to investigate the effects of fish oil (FO) supplementation to pregnant women on the maternal and fetal fatty acid profile in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids (PL) and to identify the best compartment for the assessment of fatty acid status. A multi-centre, double-blind, controlled trial was conducted. Healthy pregnant women from three European centres were randomly assigned to receive from week 20 of gestation until delivery a daily dietary supplement with either FO (500 mg DHA+150 mg EPA), 400 µg 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, both or placebo. Fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte PL were determined in maternal blood (week 20, week 30 of pregnancy and delivery) and in cord blood (delivery). FO supplementation increased DHA levels in maternal and cord plasma and erythrocyte PL. Higher percentage changes were observed in erythrocyte PL than in plasma PL. There were significant correlations between plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid levels in maternal and cord blood. Significant correlations between maternal and cord fatty acid levels at delivery in plasma and erythrocytes were also observed; however, correlation coefficients were higher for erythrocyte phophatidylethanolamine. FO supplementation increases maternal and fetal DHA status. Both plasma and erythrocytes appear to be suitable to evaluate the fatty acid status of mothers but erythrocytes seem to be a more reliable marker in neonates.

Differences in circulating carnitine status of preterm infants fed fortified human milk or preterm infant formula.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to compare plasma carnitine profiles in fortified human milk (HM)-fed preterm infants or formula-fed preterm infants. METHODS: Plasma acylcarnitine concentrations were determined in 20 formula-fed and 18 HM-fed preterm infants (birth weights between 1000 and 2200 g) by isotope dilution ESI MS/MS technique on study days 0, 14, and 28. RESULTS: Concentrations of free carnitine (FC) and different acylcarnitines did not change during the 4 weeks of the study in infants fed HM. In contrast, in infants fed formula FC increased markedly (day 0: 29.989 [16.646] µmol/L, median [interquartile range], day 14: 43.972 [8.455], P < 0.05) along with increases of short-chain esters (C2 day 0: 5.300 [3.272], day 14: 6.773 [2.127], P < 0.05; C3 day 0: 0.070 [0.059], day 14: 0.110 [0.069], P < 0.05). In contrast, some medium-chain (C8:1, C12) and long-chain esters (C14, C16) decreased significantly in infant formula by day 14, whereas FC and C2 and C3 esters increased further by day 28 (FC: 47.672 [14.753], C2: 7.430 [4.688], C3: 0.107 [0.047]). CONCLUSIONS: The altered carnitine ester profile likely reflects active involvement of the carnitine molecule in the buffering, metabolism, and elimination of nonphysiological acyl moieties.

Donor human milk for preterm infants: current evidence and research directions.

The Committee on Nutrition of the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition aims to document the existing evidence of the benefits and common concerns deriving from the use of donor human milk (DHM) in preterm infants. The comment also outlines gaps in knowledge and gives recommendations for practice and suggestions for future research directions. Protection against necrotizing enterocolitis is the major clinical benefit deriving from the use of DHM when compared with formula. Limited data also suggest unfortified DHM to be associated with improved feeding tolerance and with reduced cardiovascular risk factors during adolescence. Presence of a human milk bank (HMB) does not decrease breast-feeding rates at discharge, but decreases the use of formula during the first weeks of life. This commentary emphasizes that fresh own mother's milk (OMM) is the first choice in preterm infant feeding and strong efforts should be made to promote lactation. When OMM is not available, DHM is the recommended alternative. When neither OMM nor DHM is available, preterm formula should be used. DHM should be provided from an established HMB, which follows specific safety guidelines. Storage and processing of human milk reduces some biological components, which may diminish its health benefits. From a nutritional point of view, DHM, like HM, does not meet the requirements of preterm infants, necessitating a specific fortification regimen to optimize growth. Future research should focus on the improvement of milk processing in HMB, particularly of heat treatment; on the optimization of HM fortification; and on further evaluation of the potential clinical benefits of processed and fortified DHM.