Longitudinal associations between self-regulation and the academic and behavioral adjustment of young children born preterm.

Much of the research to date about the structure of self-regulation in early childhood has been conducted with low medical risk samples, with the general conclusion that self-regulation can be separated into overlapping executive function and effortful control factors that differentially predict child outcomes. We examined the factor structure of 36-month self-regulation among children born prematurely (n = 168) and the extent to which self-regulation predicted maternal ratings of children's socioemotional and academic competence when they were six years of age. Statistical analyses revealed a single self-regulation factor for this high neonatal risk sample, and this self-regulation factor mediated associations between early sociodemographic risk and mothers' ratings of academic competence and externalizing problems. Our findings suggest that early intervention research with children born preterm should focus on promoting supportive early environments, particularly parental sensitivity to infant cues.

A Multigenerational Model of Environmental Risk for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) Children and Families.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, public discourse has increasingly brought institutional and structural racism to the foreground of discussion on the well-being of BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) communities. Environmental toxicity in combination with the social triggers of institutional and structural racism are among the factors that shape the short- and long-term health of BIPOC Americans across multiple lifespans. OBJECTIVES: We outline a 2+ Generation Model for examining the mechanisms through which institutional and structural racism promotes the intergenerational transmission of environmental health risk and family and interpersonal relationships across the life course and across multiple generations. We present the model's theoretical underpinnings and rationale, discuss model limitations and needed sources of data, and implications for research, policy, and intervention. DISCUSSION: Parents and children are not only biologically linked in terms of transmission of environmental toxicities, but they are also linked socially and intergenerationally. The 2+ Generation Model foregrounds family and interpersonal relationships occurring within developmental contexts that are influenced by environmental toxicity as well as institutional and structural racism. In sum, the 2+ Generation Model highlights the need for an equity-first interdisciplinary approach to environmental health and redirects the burden of risk reduction away from the individual and onto the institutions and structures that perpetuate the racial disparities in exposure. Doing so requires institutional investment in expanded, multigenerational, and multimethod datasets. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13110.

COMPLIANCE, OPPOSITION, AND BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN TODDLERS BORN PRETERM OR LOW BIRTHWEIGHT.

Although children born preterm or low birth weight (PT LBW) are more likely to exhibit behavior problems compared to children born at term, developmental and family processes associated with these problems are unclear. We examined trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms in relation to toddler compliance and behavior problems in families with PT LBW infants. A total of 177 infants (93 boys, 84 girls) and their mothers enrolled in the study during the infant's NICU stay. Data were collected at five time points across 2 years. Assessments of maternal depressive symptoms were conducted at all time points, and toddler compliance and opposition to maternal requests and behavior problems were assessed at 2 years. Toddlers born earlier with more health problems to mothers whose depressive symptoms increased over time exhibited the most opposition to maternal requests during a cleanup task at 24 months, consistent with multiple risk models. Mothers with elevated depression symptoms reported more behavior problems in their toddlers. The study has implications for family-based early intervention programs seeking to identify PT LBW infants at highest risk for problem behaviors.

What Can Cognitive Science Do for People?

The critical question for cognitive scientists is what does cognitive science do, if anything, for people? Cognitive science is primarily concerned with human cognition but has fallen short in continuously and critically assessing the who in human cognition. This complacency in a world where white supremacist and patriarchal structures leave cognitive science in the unfortunate position of potentially supporting those structures. We take it that many cognitive scientists operate on the assumption that the study of human cognition is both interesting and important. We want to invoke that importance to note that cognitive scientists must continue to work to show how the field is useful to all of humanity and reflects a humanity that is not white by default. We wonder how much the field has done, and can do, to show that it is useful not only in the sense that we might make connections with researchers in other fields, win grants and write papers, even of the highest quality, but useful in some material way to the billions of non-cognitive scientists across the globe.

Do mothers' play behaviors moderate the associations between socioeconomic status and 24-month neurocognitive outcomes of toddlers born preterm or with low birth weight?

OBJECTIVE: We examined whether neonatal risks and maternal scaffolding (i.e., task changes and flexibility) during a 16-month post-term play interaction moderated the association between socioeconomic status (SES), visual-spatial processing and emerging working memory assessed at 24 months post-term among 75 toddlers born preterm or low birth weight. METHOD: SES and neonatal risk data were collected at hospital discharge and mother-child play interactions were observed at 16-month post-term. General cognitive abilities, verbal/nonverbal working memory and visual-spatial processing data were collected at 24 months. RESULTS: Neonatal risks did not moderate the associations between SES and 24-month outcomes. However, lower mother-initiated task changes were related to better 24-month visual-spatial processing among children living in higher SES homes. Mothers' flexible responses to child initiated task changes similarly moderated the impact of SES on 24-month visual-spatial processing. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that mothers' play behaviors differentially relate to child outcomes depending on household SES.

Potential Socioeconomic Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Neural Development, Mental Health, and K-12 Educational Achievement.

The Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic can affect more than a child's biological health. Lack of in-person schooling and increased stress can affect neurodevelopment, mental health, and later life outcomes, especially for students who are from low socioeconomic status (SES) households. Insights from neuroscience on child development reveal potential neural mechanisms and educational outcomes likely disrupted by the pandemic-and how this will disproportionally affect low-SES children. Three policies can combat these educational and emotional effects: increased access to online resources, investments in social-emotional health, and increased access to summer/out-of-school learning. Integrating the traditionally separate fields of neuroscience and educational research will be critical for developing and assessing the most impactful policies to improve the well-being and educational achievement of our most disadvantaged children.

Maternal scaffolding and preterm toddlers' visual-spatial processing and emerging working memory.

OBJECTIVE: We examined longitudinal associations among neonatal and socioeconomic risks, maternal scaffolding behaviors, and 24-month visual-spatial processing and working memory in a sample of 73 toddlers born preterm or low birthweight (PT LBW). METHODS: Risk data were collected at hospital discharge and dyadic play interactions were observed at 16-months postterm. Abbreviated IQ scores, verbal/nonverbal working memory, and verbal/nonverbal visual-spatial processing data were collected at 24-months postterm. RESULTS: Higher attention scaffolding and lower emotion scaffolding during 16-month play were associated with 24-month verbal working memory scores. A joint significance test revealed that maternal attention and emotion scaffolding during 16-month play mediated the relationship between socioeconomic risk and 24-month verbal working memory. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest areas for future research and intervention with children born PT LBW who also experience high socioeconomic risk.

Skin-to-skin contact and infant emotional and cognitive development in chronic perinatal distress.

OBJECTIVE: We examined whether the timing of maternal-neonate skin-to-skin contact (SSC) predicts infant emotional and cognitive development in the context of chronic maternal perinatal stress and depressive symptoms. STUDY DESIGN: This secondary analysis included data from a group-based prenatal care clinical trial for 37 pregnant women with low household income. Mothers completed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) during the third trimester and postpartum. After birth, they reported timing of SSC, and completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised Very Short Form (IBQ-R VSF) (M = 51.7 weeks, SD = 4.2). Increased PSS or CES-D score from the third trimester to post-birth indicates chronic maternal perinatal stress or depressive symptoms compared to a decrease or no change. Using hierarchical regression models, we examined if the timing of SSC makes a unique contribution in predicting infant outcomes in the context of chronic maternal perinatal stress and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Stress-exposed infants had less negative emotionality if SSC is provided immediately after delivery, less than 10 min after birth. The effect of SSC on effortful control in relation to chronic perinatal stress was not statistically significant. The impact of timing of SSC on negative emotionality or effortful control in relation to chronic perinatal depressive symptoms was not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: This work implies that very early SSC may play a role in later infant emotion regulation process and could act as a protective factor in chronically stressed pregnant women.

Investigating Cumulative Exposures among 3- to 4-Year-Old Children Using Wearable Ultrafine Particle Sensors and Language Environment Devices: A Pilot and Feasibility Study.

Interdisciplinary approaches are needed to measure the additive or multiplicative impacts of chemical and non-chemical stressors on child development outcomes. The lack of interdisciplinary approaches to environmental health and child development has led to a gap in the development of effective intervention strategies. It is hypothesized that a broader systems approach can support more effective interventions over time. To achieve these goals, detailed study protocols are needed. Researchers in child development typically focus on psychosocial stressors. Less attention is paid to chemical and non-chemical stressors and how the interaction of these stressors may impact child development. This feasibility study aims to bridge the gap between child development and environmental epidemiology research by trialing novel methods of gathering ultrafine particle data with a wearable air sensor, while simultaneously gathering language and noise data with the Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system. Additionally, psychosocial data (e.g., parenting quality, caregiver depression, and household chaos) was gathered from parent reports. Child participants (age 3-4 years) completed cognitive tasks to assess self-regulation and receptive language skills, and provided a biospecimen analyzed for inflammatory biomarkers. Data collection was completed at two time points, roughly corresponding to fall and spring. Twenty-six participants were recruited for baseline data, and 11 participants completed a follow-up session. Preliminary results indicate that it is feasible to gather personal Particulate Matter (PM2.5), language, and noise data, cognitive assessments, and biospecimens from our sample of 3-4-year-old children. While there are obstacles to overcome when working with this age group, future studies can benefit from adapting lessons learned regarding recruitment strategies, study design, and protocol implementation.

Maternal play behaviors, child negativity, and preterm or low birthweight toddlers' visual-spatial outcomes: testing a differential susceptibility hypothesis.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the joint roles of child negative emotionality and parenting in the visual-spatial development of toddlers born preterm or with low birthweights (PTLBW). METHOD: Neonatal risk data were collected at hospital discharge, observer- and parent-rated child negative emotionality was assessed at 9-months postterm, and mother-initiated task changes and flexibility during play were observed during a dyadic play interaction at 16-months postterm. Abbreviated IQ scores, and verbal/nonverbal and visual-spatial processing data were collected at 24-months postterm. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses did not support our hypothesis that the visual-spatial processing of PTLBW toddlers with higher negative emotionality would be differentially susceptible to parenting behaviors during play. Instead, observer-rated distress and a negativity composite score were associated with less optimal visual-spatial processing when mothers were more flexible during the 16-month play interaction. Mother-initiated task changes did not interact with any of the negative emotionality variables to predict any of the 24-month neurocognitive outcomes, nor did maternal flexibility interact with mother-rated difficult temperament to predict the visual-spatial processing outcomes.

Predictors of depressive symptom trajectories in mothers of preterm or low birth weight infants.

Predictors of maternal depression trajectories were examined longitudinally in families with an infant born preterm or at a low birth weight. A total of 181 mother-infant dyads enrolled in the study before the infant's neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) discharge. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at 5 timepoints, and contextual variables and infant risks were assessed at NICU discharge. Hierarchical linear models revealed that mothers who experienced more risk factors reported more depressive symptoms just before their infant's NICU discharge and showed less decline in depressive symptoms in the months immediately following the child's birth. Although cumulative risks predicted depression trajectories, this effect appeared driven by maternal and family sociodemographic risks rather than infant risks. Addition of family support as a covariate in the multilevel models with a subsample of families revealed that social support and depression covaried across time. However, most of the findings regarding the association between risk and depression remained consistent, whereas the effects of maternal race and multiple birth were slightly attenuated.

Mercy mercy me: social injustice and the prevention of environmental pollutant exposures among ethnic minority and poor children.

Children's lead and pesticide exposures are used as examples to examine social disparities in exposure reduction efforts as well as environmental policies impacting children in poverty and minority children. The review also presents an estimate of the effect of social disparities in lead exposure on standardized test performance. Because including measures of pollutants with potential behavioral effects can alter the observed effects of race/ethnicity, income, and other variables, suggestions are made for including measures of pollutants in longitudinal studies and studies of multiple and cumulative risk. Continued basic research on developmental correlates and effects of pollution exposure, participatory action-research with at-risk and underrepresented populations, and contributions to public awareness and education are important leadership areas for developmental researchers.