Proteomics identifies novel biomarkers of synovial joint disease in a canine model of mucopolysaccharidosis I.

Mucopolysaccharidosis I is a lysosomal storage disorder characterized by deficient alpha-L-iduronidase activity, leading to abnormal accumulation of glycosaminoglycans in cells and tissues. Synovial joint disease is prevalent and significantly reduces patient quality of life. There is a critical need for improved understanding of joint disease pathophysiology in MPS I, including specific biomarkers to predict and monitor joint disease progression, and response to treatment. The objective of this study was to leverage the naturally-occurring MPS I canine model and undertake an unbiased proteomic screen to identify systemic biomarkers predictive of local joint disease in MPS I. Synovial fluid and serum samples were collected from MPS I and healthy dogs at 12 months-of-age, and protein abundance characterized using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Stifle joints were evaluated postmortem using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histology. Proteomics identified 40 proteins for which abundance was significantly correlated between serum and synovial fluid, including markers of inflammatory joint disease and lysosomal dysfunction. Elevated expression of three biomarker candidates, matrix metalloproteinase 19, inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy-chain 3 and alpha-1-microglobulin, was confirmed in MPS I cartilage, and serum abundance of these molecules was found to correlate with MRI and histological degenerative grades. The candidate biomarkers identified have the potential to improve patient care by facilitating minimally-invasive, specific assessment of joint disease progression and response to therapeutic intervention.

Evaluating whole-genome expression differences in idiopathic and diabetic adhesive capsulitis.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic patients have a greater incidence of adhesive capsulitis (AC) and a more protracted disease course than patients with idiopathic AC. The purpose of this study was to compare gene expression differences between AC with diabetes mellitus and AC without diabetes mellitus. METHODS: Shoulder capsule samples were prospectively obtained from diabetic or nondiabetic patients who presented with shoulder dysfunction and underwent arthroscopy (N = 16). Shoulder samples of AC with and without diabetes (n = 8) were compared with normal shoulder samples with and without diabetes as the control group (n = 8). Shoulder capsule samples were subjected to whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing, and differential expression was analyzed with EdgeR. Only genes with a false discovery rate < 5% were included for further functional enrichment analysis. RESULTS: The sample population had a mean age of 47 years (range, 24-62 years), and the mean hemoglobin A1c level for nondiabetic and diabetic patients was 5.18% and 8.71%, respectively. RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that 66 genes were differentially expressed between diabetic patients and nondiabetic patients with AC whereas only 3 genes were differentially expressed when control patients with and without diabetes were compared. Furthermore, 286 genes were differentially expressed in idiopathic AC patients, and 61 genes were differentially expressed in diabetic AC patients. On gene clustering analysis, idiopathic AC was enriched with multiple structural and muscle-related pathways, such as muscle filament sliding, whereas diabetic AC included a greater number of hormonal and inflammatory signaling pathways, such as cellular response to corticotropin-releasing factor. CONCLUSIONS: Whole-transcriptome expression profiles demonstrate a fundamentally different underlying pathophysiology when comparing diabetic AC with idiopathic AC, suggesting that these conditions are distinct clinical entities. The new genes expressed explain the differences in the disease course and suggest new therapeutic targets that may lead to different treatment paradigms in these 2 subsets.

Perlecan/HSPG2: Signaling role of domain IV in chondrocyte clustering with implications for Schwartz-Jampel Syndrome.

Perlecan/heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2), a large HSPG, is indispensable for the development of musculoskeletal tissues, where it is deposited within the pericellular matrix (PCM) surrounding chondrocytes and disappears nearly completely at the chondro-osseous junction (COJ) of developing long bones. Destruction of perlecan at the COJ converts an avascular cartilage compartment into one that permits blood vessel infiltration and osteogenesis. Mutations in perlecan are associated with chondrodysplasia with widespread musculoskeletal and joint defects. This study elucidated novel signaling roles of perlecan core protein in endochondral bone formation and chondrocyte behavior. Perlecan subdomains were tested for chondrogenic properties in ATDC5 cells, a model for early chondrogenesis. A region within domain IV of perlecan (HSPG2 IV-3) was found to promote rapid prechondrocyte clustering. Introduction of the mutation (R3452Q) associated with the human skeletal disorder Schwartz-Jampel syndrome limited HSPG2 IV-3-induced clustering. HSPG2 IV-3 activity was enhanced when thermally unfolded, likely because of increased exposure of the active motif(s). HSPG2 IV-3-induced clustering was accompanied by the deactivation of key components of the focal adhesion complex, FAK and Src, with increased messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of precartilage condensation markers Sox9 and N-cadherin ( Cdh2), and cartilage PCM components collagen II ( Col2a1) and aggrecan ( Acan). HSPG2 IV-3 reduced signaling through the ERK pathway, where loss of ERK1/2 phosphorylation coincided with reduced FoxM1 protein levels and increased mRNA levels cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C (Cdkn1c) and activating transcription factor 3 ( Atf3), reducing cell proliferation. These findings point to a critical role for perlecan domain IV in cartilage development through triggering chondrocyte condensation.

Mechanically-Activated Microcapsules for 'On-Demand' Drug Delivery in Dynamically Loaded Musculoskeletal Tissues.

Delivery of biofactors in a precise and controlled fashion remains a clinical challenge. Stimuli-responsive delivery systems can facilitate 'on-demand' release of therapeutics in response to a variety of physiologic triggering mechanisms (e.g. pH, temperature). However, few systems to date have taken advantage of mechanical inputs from the microenvironment to initiate drug release. Here, we developed mechanically-activated microcapsules (MAMCs) that are designed to deliver therapeutics in an on-demand fashion in response to the mechanically loaded environment of regenerating musculoskeletal tissues, with the ultimate goal of furthering tissue repair. To establish a suite of microcapsules with different thresholds for mechano-activation, we first manipulated MAMC physical dimensions and composition, and evaluated their mechano-response under both direct 2D compression and in 3D matrices mimicking the extracellular matrix properties and dynamic loading environment of regenerating tissue. To demonstrate the feasibility of this delivery system, we used an engineered cartilage model to test the efficacy of mechanically-instigated release of TGF-ß3 on the chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells. These data establish a novel platform by which to tune the release of therapeutics and/or regenerative factors based on the physiologic dynamic mechanical loading environment, and will find widespread application in the repair and regeneration of numerous musculoskeletal tissues.

Delayed hypertrophic differentiation of epiphyseal chondrocytes contributes to failed secondary ossification in mucopolysaccharidosis VII dogs.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) VII is a lysosomal storage disorder characterized by deficient ß-glucuronidase activity, which leads to the accumulation of incompletely degraded glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). MPS VII patients present with severe skeletal abnormalities, which are particularly prevalent in the spine. Incomplete cartilage-to-bone conversion in MPS VII vertebrae during postnatal development is associated with progressive spinal deformity and spinal cord compression. The objectives of this study were to determine the earliest postnatal developmental stage at which vertebral bone disease manifests in MPS VII and to identify the underlying cellular basis of impaired cartilage-to-bone conversion, using the naturally-occurring canine model. Control and MPS VII dogs were euthanized at 9 and 14 days-of-age, and vertebral secondary ossification centers analyzed using micro-computed tomography, histology, qPCR, and protein immunoblotting. Imaging studies and mRNA analysis of bone formation markers established that secondary ossification commences between 9 and 14 days in control animals, but not in MPS VII animals. mRNA analysis of differentiation markers revealed that MPS VII epiphyseal chondrocytes are unable to successfully transition from proliferation to hypertrophy during this critical developmental window. Immunoblotting demonstrated abnormal persistence of Sox9 protein in MPS VII cells between 9 and 14 days-of-age, and biochemical assays revealed abnormally high intra and extracellular GAG content in MPS VII epiphyseal cartilage at as early as 9 days-of-age. In contrast, assessment of vertebral growth plates and primary ossification centers revealed no significant abnormalities at either age. The results of this study establish that failed vertebral bone formation in MPS VII can be traced to the failure of epiphyseal chondrocytes to undergo hypertrophic differentiation at the appropriate developmental stage, and suggest that aberrant processing of Sox9 protein may contribute to this cellular dysfunction. These results also highlight the importance of early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention to prevent the progression of debilitating skeletal disease in MPS patients.

Evaluation of tendon and ligament microstructure and mechanical properties in a canine model of mucopolysaccharidosis I.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) I is a lysosomal storage disorder characterized by deficient alpha-l-iduronidase activity, leading to abnormal accumulation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in cells and tissues. Synovial joint disease is prevalent and significantly reduces patient quality of life. There is a strong clinical need for improved treatment approaches that specifically target joint tissues; however, their development is hampered by poor understanding of underlying disease pathophysiology, including how pathological changes to component tissues contribute to overall joint dysfunction. Ligaments and tendons, in particular, have received very little attention, despite the critical roles of these tissues in joint stability and biomechanical function. The goal of this study was to leverage the naturally canine model to undertake functional and structural assessments of the anterior (cranial) cruciate ligament (CCL) and Achilles tendon in MPS I. Tissues were obtained postmortem from 12-month-old MPS I and control dogs and tested to failure in uniaxial tension. Both CCLs and Achilles tendons from MPS I animals exhibited significantly lower stiffness and failure properties compared to those from healthy controls. Histological examination revealed multiple pathological abnormalities, including collagen fiber disorganization, increased cellularity and vascularity, and elevated GAG content in both tissues. Clinically, animals exhibited mobility deficits, including abnormal gait, which was associated with hyperextensibility of the stifle and hock joints. These findings demonstrate that pathological changes to both ligaments and tendons contribute to abnormal joint function in MPS I, and suggest that effective clinical management of joint disease in patients should incorporate treatments targeting these tissues.

Toward designing human intervention studies to prevent osteoarthritis after knee injury: A report from an interdisciplinary OARSI 2023 workshop.

Objective: The global impact of osteoarthritis is growing. Currently no disease modifying osteoarthritis drugs/therapies exist, increasing the need for preventative strategies. Knee injuries have a high prevalence, distinct onset, and strong independent association with post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Numerous groups are embarking upon research that will culminate in clinical trials to assess the effect of interventions to prevent knee PTOA despite challenges and lack of consensus about trial design in this population. Our objectives were to improve awareness of knee PTOA prevention trial design and discuss state-of-the art methods to address the unique opportunities and challenges of these studies. Design: An international interdisciplinary group developed a workshop, hosted at the 2023 Osteoarthritis Research Society International Congress. Here we summarize the workshop content and outputs, with the goal of moving the field of PTOA prevention trial design forward. Results: Workshop highlights included discussions about target population (considering risk, homogeneity, and possibility of modifying osteoarthritis outcome); target treatment (considering delivery, timing, feasibility and effectiveness); comparators (usual care, placebo), and primary symptomatic outcomes considering surrogates and the importance of knee function and symptoms other than pain to this population. Conclusions: Opportunities to test multimodal PTOA prevention interventions across preclinical models and clinical trials exist. As improving symptomatic outcomes aligns with patient and regulator priorities, co-primary symptomatic (single or aggregate/multidimensional outcome considering function and symptoms beyond pain) and structural/physiological outcomes may be appropriate for these trials. To ensure PTOA prevention trials are relevant and acceptable to all stakeholders, future research should address critical knowledge gaps and challenges.

Tissue engineering for articular cartilage repair--the state of the art.

Articular cartilage exhibits little capacity for intrinsic repair, and thus even minor injuries or lesions may lead to progressive damage and osteoarthritic joint degeneration, resulting in significant pain and disability. While there have been numerous attempts to develop tissue-engineered grafts or patches to repair focal chondral and osteochondral defects, there remain significant challenges in the clinical application of cell-based therapies for cartilage repair. This paper reviews the current state of cartilage tissue engineering with respect to different cell sources and their potential genetic modification, biomaterial scaffolds and growth factors, as well as preclinical testing in various animal models. This is not intended as a systematic review, rather an opinion of where the field is moving in light of current literature. While significant advances have been made in recent years, the complexity of this problem suggests that a multidisciplinary approach - combining a clinical perspective with expertise in cell biology, biomechanics, biomaterials science and high-throughput analysis will likely be necessary to address the challenge of developing functional cartilage replacements. With this approach we are more likely to realise the clinical goal of treating both focal defects and even large-scale osteoarthritic degenerative changes in the joint.

Distributions of types I, II and III collagen by region in the human supraspinatus tendon.

The mechanical properties of the human supraspinatus tendon (SST) are highly heterogeneous and may reflect an important adaptive response to its complex, multiaxial loading environment. However, these functional properties are associated with a location-dependent structure and composition that have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of types I, II and III collagen in six distinct regions of the SST and compare changes in collagen concentration across regions with local changes in mechanical properties. We hypothesized that type I collagen content would be high throughout the tendon, type II collagen would be restricted to regions of compressive loading and type III collagen content would be high in regions associated with damage. We further hypothesized that regions of high type III collagen content would correspond to regions with low tensile modulus and a low degree of collagen alignment. Although type III collagen content was not significantly higher in regions that are frequently damaged, all other hypotheses were supported by our results. In particular, type II collagen content was highest near the insertion while type III collagen was inversely correlated with tendon modulus and collagen alignment. The measured increase in type II collagen under the coracoacromial arch provides evidence of adaptation to compressive loading in the SST. Moreover, the structure-function relationship between type III collagen content and tendon mechanics established in this study demonstrates a mechanism for altered mechanical properties in pathological tendons and provides a guideline for identifying therapeutic targets and pathology-specific biomarkers.

Arthroscopic Excision of Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of the Trochanteric Bursa.

Trochanteric bursitis is a common disorder affecting middle-aged adults and usually presents with lateral-based hip pain and swelling. It usually responds to conservative measures, including adductor stretching, abductor strengthening, and select injections of corticosteroid or platelet-rich plasma. For refractory cases, excision, open or arthroscopic, is usually recommended. We observed a 55-year-old woman who had lateral hip pain and longstanding swelling consistent with refractory trochanteric bursitis. Her persistent symptoms, coupled with atypical findings on imaging, prompted an arthroscopic evaluation. Arthroscopic examination of the peritrochanteric space revealed a fulminant bursal inflammation that pierced through the iliotibial band. The bursal inflammation was excised arthroscopically and biopsy of the tissue revealed a diagnosis of pigmented villonodular synovitis (PVNS). The patient had an uneventful recovery and had a full resolution of symptoms with no recurrence noted at 3-year follow-up. This is the first reported case of arthroscopic excision of PVNS of the trochanteric bursa. Given that it may mimic trochanteric bursitis, it is important for clinicians to be aware of the possibility of this progressive condition for appropriate clinical intervention. [Orthopedics. 2023;46(6):e381-e383.].

Self-Assembly Culture Model for Engineering Musculoskeletal Tissues.

The goal of a self-assembly tissue engineering is to create functional tissue following a natural cell-driven process that mirrors natural development. This approach to tissue engineering has tremendous potential for the development of reparative strategies to treat musculoskeletal injuries and diseases, especially for articular cartilage which has poor regenerative capacity. Additionally, many bioengineering and culture methods fail to maintain the chondrocyte phenotype and contain the correct matrix composition in the long term. Existing cartilage-engineering approaches have been developed, but many approaches involve complicated culture techniques and require foreign substances and biomaterials as scaffolds. While these scaffold-based approaches have numerous advantages, such as an instant or rapid creation of biomechanical properties, they frequently result in dedifferentiation of cells in part, due to the adherence to foreign scaffold materials. In this chapter, we describe a novel approach of developing a scaffold-less cartilage-like biomaterial, using the simple principle that cells at high density bear a capacity to coalesce when they cannot attach to any culture substrate. We refer to the biomaterial formed as a cartilage tissue equivalent or CTA and have published to describe their characteristics and utility in high-throughput drug screening. The method is described to generate reproducible cartilage analogs using a specialized high-density suspension culture technique using a hydrogel poly-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (polyHEMA) coating of a culture dish. We have demonstrated that this approach can rapidly form biomass of chondrocytes that over time becomes very synthetically active producing a cartilage-like extracellular matrix that closely mimics the biochemical and biomechanical characteristics of native articular cartilage. The culture approach can also be used to form CTA from other than articular cartilage-derived chondrocytes as well as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) (while differentiating MSCs into chondrocytes). Some of the advantages are phenotype stability, reproducible CTA size, and biomechanical and biochemical characteristics similar to natural cartilage.

Preclinical Use of FGF-18 Augmentation for Improving Cartilage Healing Following Surgical Repair: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of fibroblast growth factor-18 (FGF-18) augmentation for improving articular cartilage healing following surgical repair in preclinical (in vivo) animal models. DESIGN: A systematic review was performed evaluating the efficacy of FGF-18 augmentation with cartilage surgery compared with cartilage surgery without FGF-18 augmentation in living animal models. Eligible intervention groups were FGF-18 treatment in conjunction with orthopedic procedures, including microfracture, osteochondral auto/allograft transplantation, and cellular-based repair. Outcome variables were: International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) score, modified O'Driscoll histology score, tissue infill score, qualitative histology, and adverse events. Descriptive statistics were recorded and summarized for each included study. RESULTS: In total, 493 studies were identified and 4 studies were included in the final analysis. All studies were randomized controlled trials evaluating in vivo use of recombinant human FGF-18 (rhFGF-18). Animal models included ovine (n = 3) and equine (n = 1), with rhFGF-18 use following microfracture (n = 3) or osteochondral defect repair (n = 1). The rhFGF-18 was delivered via intra-articular injection (n = 2), collagen membrane scaffold (n = 1), or both (n = 1). All studies reported significant, positive improvements in cartilage defect repair with rhFGF-18 compared with controls based on ICRS score (n = 4), modified O'Driscoll score (n = 4), tissue infill (n = 3), and expression of collagen type II (n = 4) (P < 0.05). No adverse events were reported with the intra-articular administration of this growth factor, indicating short-term safety and efficacy of rhFGF-18 in vivo. CONCLUSION: This systematic review provides evidence that rhFGF-18 significantly improves cartilage healing at 6 months postoperatively following microfracture or osteochondral defect repair in preclinical randomized controlled trials.

Dose-dependent effects of enzyme replacement therapy on skeletal disease progression in mucopolysaccharidosis VII dogs.

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) VII is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder characterized by deficient activity of the enzyme ß-glucuronidase. Skeletal abnormalities are common in patients and result in diminished quality of life. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) for MPS VII using recombinant human ß-glucuronidase (vestronidase alfa) was recently approved for use in patients; however, to date there have been no studies evaluating therapeutic efficacy in a large animal model of MPS VII. The objective of this study was to establish the effects of intravenous ERT, administered at either the standard clinical dose (4 mg/kg) or a high dose (20 mg/kg), on skeletal disease progression in MPS VII using the naturally occurring canine model. Untreated MPS VII animals exhibited progressive synovial joint and vertebral bone disease and were no longer ambulatory by age 6 months. Standard-dose ERT-treated animals exhibited modest attenuation of joint disease, but by age 6 months were no longer ambulatory. High-dose ERT-treated animals exhibited marked attenuation of joint disease, and all were still ambulatory by age 6 months. Vertebral bone disease was recalcitrant to ERT irrespective of dose. Overall, our findings indicate that ERT administered at higher doses results in significantly improved skeletal disease outcomes in MPS VII dogs.

Tension-activated nanofiber patches delivering an anti-inflammatory drug improve repair in a goat intervertebral disc herniation model.

Conventional microdiscectomy treatment for intervertebral disc herniation alleviates pain but does not repair the annulus fibrosus, resulting in a high incidence of recurrent herniation and persistent dysfunction. The lack of repair and the acute inflammation that arise after injury can further compromise the disc and result in disc-wide degeneration in the long term. To address this clinical need, we developed tension-activated repair patches (TARPs) for annulus fibrosus repair and local delivery of the anti-inflammatory factor anakinra (a recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist). TARPs transmit physiologic strain to mechanically activated microcapsules embedded within the patch, which release encapsulated bioactive molecules in direct response to spinal loading. Mechanically activated microcapsules carrying anakinra were loaded into TARPs, and the effects of TARP-mediated annular repair and anakinra delivery were evaluated in a goat model of annular injury in the cervical spine. TARPs integrated with native tissue and provided structural reinforcement at the injury site that prevented aberrant disc-wide remodeling resulting from detensioning of the annular fibrosus. The delivery of anakinra by TARP implantation increased matrix deposition and retention at the injury site and improved maintenance of disc extracellular matrix. Anakinra delivery additionally attenuated the inflammatory response associated with TARP implantation, decreasing osteolysis in adjacent vertebrae and preserving disc cellularity and matrix organization throughout the annulus fibrosus. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of TARPs for the treatment of intervertebral disc herniation.

Quantitative cartilage degeneration associated with spontaneous osteoarthritis in a guinea pig model.

PURPOSE: To determine (i) the feasibility and intra- and inter-scan reproducibility of T(1ρ) MRI in assessing cartilage degeneration in a guinea pig model with naturally occurring joint disease that closely mimics human osteoarthritis (OA), (ii) demonstrate the sensitivity of T(1ρ) MRI in assessing the age dependent cartilage degeneration in OA progression as compared to histopathological changes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Duncan-Hartley guinea pigs were obtained at various ages and maintained under an IACUC approved protocol. The left hind stifle joint was imaged using T(1ρ) MRI on a 9.4 Tesla Varian horizontal 20 cm bore scanner using a custom surface coil. Reproducibility of T(1ρ) MRI was assessed using 4-month-old guinea pigs (N = 3). Three age cohorts; 3 month (N = 8), 5 month (N = 6), and 9 month (N = 5), were used to determine the age-dependent osteoarthritic changes as measured by T(1ρ) MRI. Validation of age-dependent cartilage degeneration was confirmed by histology and Safranin-O staining. RESULTS: T(1ρ) values obtained in the cartilage of the stifle joint in guinea pigs were highly reproducible with an inter-scan mean coefficient of variation (CV) of 6.57% and a maximum intra-scan CV of 9.29%. Mean cartilage T(1ρ) values in animals with late stage cartilage degeneration were 56.3-56.9 ms (5-9 month cohorts) were both significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that obtained from 3-month-old cohort (44 ms) demonstrating an age-dependent variation. T(1ρ) was shown to be significantly greater than T(2) . T(1ρ) dispersion was observed in this animal model for the first time showing an increase of 45% between 500 Hz and 1500 Hz spin-locking frequency. Cartilage thickness measurements were calculated from single mid-coronal histology sections from same animals used for T(1ρ) MRI. Thickness calculations showed insignificant differences between 3- and 5-month cohorts and was significantly decreased by 9 months of age (P < 0.01). A moderate correlation (R(2) = 0.45) existed between T(1ρ) values and signal intensity of Safranin-O stain. CONCLUSION: The data presented demonstrate that T(1ρ) MRI is highly reproducible in this spontaneous model of OA and may serve as a noninvasive tool to characterize joint cartilage degeneration during OA. Age-dependent changes, verified with histological measurements of proteoglycan loss, correlated with T(1ρ) across different age groups. T(1ρ) has adequate dynamic range and is sensitive to detect and track the progression of cartilage degeneration in the guinea pig model before gross anatomical changes such as cartilage thinning has occurred. This study presents a technological advancement that would permit longitudinal studies of evaluating disease-modifying therapies useful for treating human OA.

Regional variation in human supraspinatus tendon proteoglycans: decorin, biglycan, and aggrecan.

While tendons typically undergo primary tensile loading, the human supraspinatus tendon (SST) experiences substantial amounts of tension, compression, and shear in vivo. As a result, the functional roles of the extracellular matrix components, in particular the proteoglycans (PGs), are likely complex and important. The goal of this study was to determine the PG content in specific regions of the SST that exhibit differing mechanical function. The concentration of aggrecan, biglycan, and decorin was determined in six regions of the human SST using immunochemical techniques. We hypothesized that aggrecan concentrations would be highest in areas where the tendon likely experiences compression; biglycan levels would be highest in regions likely subjected to injury and/or active remodeling such as the anterior regions; decorin concentrations would be highest in regions of greatest tensile stiffness. Our results generally supported these hypotheses and demonstrated that aggrecan and biglycan share regional variability, with increased concentration in the anterior and posterior regions and smaller concentration in the medial regions. Decorin, however, was in high concentration throughout all regions. The data presented in this study represent the first regional measurements of PG in the SST. Together with our previous regional measurements of mechanical properties, these data can be used to evaluate SST structure-function relationships. With knowledge of the differences in specific PG content, their spatial variations in the SST, and their relationships to tendon mechanics, we can begin to associate defects in PG content with specific pathology, which may provide guidance for new therapeutic interventions.

Recombinant fibroblast growth factor-18 (sprifermin) enhances microfracture-induced cartilage healing.

Posttraumatic osteoarthritis is a disabling condition impacting the mostly young and active population. In the present study, we investigated the impact of intra-articular sprifermin, a recombinant truncated fibroblast growth factor 18, on the outcome of microfracture treatment, a widely used surgical technique to enhance cartilage healing at the site of injury. For this study, we created a cartilage defect and performed microfracture treatment in fetlock joints of 18 horses, treated joints with one of three doses of sprifermin (10, 30, or 100 µg) or with saline, hyaluronan, and evaluated animals functional and structural outcomes over 24 weeks. For primary outcome measures, we performed histological evaluations and gene expression analysis of aggrecan, collagen types I and II, and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein in three regions of interest. As secondary outcome measures, we examined animals' lameness, performed arthroscopic, radiographic, and computed tomography (CT) scan imaging and gross morphology assessment. We detected the highest treatment benefit following 100 µg sprifermin treatment. The overall histological assessment showed an improvement in the kissing region, and the expression of constitutive genes showed a concentration-dependent enhancement, especially in the peri-lesion area. We detected a significant improvement in lameness scores, arthroscopic evaluations, radiography, and CT scans following sprifermin treatment when results from three dose-treatment groups were combined. Our results demonstrated, for the first time, an enhancement on microfracture outcomes following sprifermin treatment suggesting a cartilage regenerative role and a potential benefit of sprifermin treatment in early cartilage injuries.

Identifying small molecules for protecting chondrocyte function and matrix integrity after controlled compressive injury.

Objective: Articular cartilage injury is central for the development of post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). With few disease-modifying therapies successful at offsetting progressive osteoarthritis (OA), our goal is to use a high throughput screening platform of cartilage injury to identify novel chondroprotective compounds. Targeting articular cartilage damage immediately after injury remains a promising therapeutic strategy to overcome irreversible tissue damage. Method: We constructed a single impact-cartilage screening method using a multi-platen system that simultaneously impacts 48 samples and makes use of engineered cartilage tissue analogs (known as CTAs). Drug libraries were screened and assessed for their ability to alter two crucial biological responses to impact injuries, namely matrix degradation and cell stress. Results: Over 500 small molecules were screened for their ability to alter proteoglycan loss, matrix metalloproteinase activity, and cell stress or death. Fifty-five compounds passed through secondary screening and were from commercial libraries of natural and redox, stem cell related compounds, as well as protease, kinase and phosphatase inhibitors. Through secondary screening, 16 promising candidates exhibited activity on one or more critical function of chondrocytes. While many are mechanistically known compounds, their function in joint diseases is not known. Conclusion: This platform was validated for screening drug activity against a tissue engineered model of PTOA. Multiple compounds identified in this manner have potential application as early protective therapy for treating PTOA, and require further study. We propose this screening platform can identify novel molecules that act on early chondrocyte responses to injury and provide an invaluable tool for therapeutic development.

Gravity-based patterning of osteogenic factors to preserve bone structure after osteochondral injury in a large animal model.

Chondral and osteochondral repair strategies are limited by adverse bony changes that occur after injury. Bone resorption can cause entire scaffolds, engineered tissues, or even endogenous repair tissues to subside below the cartilage surface. To address this translational issue, we fabricated thick-shelled poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) microcapsules containing the pro-osteogenic agents triiodothyronine andß-glycerophosphate, and delivered these microcapsules in a large animal model of osteochondral injury to preserve bone structure. We demonstrate that the developed microcapsules rupturedin vitrounder increasing mechanical loads, and readily sink within a liquid solution, enabling gravity-based patterning along the osteochondral surface. In a large animal, these mechanically-activated microcapsules (MAMCs) were assessed through two different delivery strategies. Intra-articular injection of control MAMCs enabled fluorescent quantification of MAMC rupture and cargo release in a synovial joint setting over timein vivo. This joint-wide injection also confirmed that the MAMCs do not elicit an inflammatory response. In the contralateral hindlimbs, chondral defects were created, MAMCs were patternedin situ, and nanofracture (Nfx), a clinically utilized method to promote cartilage repair, was performed. The Nfx holes enabled marrow-derived stromal cells to enter the defect area and served as repeatable bone injury sites to monitor over time. Animals were evaluated one and two weeks after injection and surgery. Analysis of injected MAMCs showed that bioactive cargo was released in a controlled fashion over two weeks. A bone fluorochrome label injected at the time of surgery displayed maintenance of mineral labeling in the therapeutic group, but resorption in both control groups. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) staining at the osteochondral interface revealed higher AP activity in defects treated with therapeutic MAMCs. Overall, this study develops a gravity-based approach to pattern bioactive factors along the osteochondral interface, and applies this novel biofabrication strategy to preserve bone structure after osteochondral injury.

Nucleus pulposus cells synthesize a functional extracellular matrix and respond to inflammatory cytokine challenge following long-term agarose culture.

Intervertebral disc degeneration is characterized by a cascade of cellular, biochemical and structural changes that may lead to functional impairment and low back pain. Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) is strongly implicated in the etiology of disc degeneration, however there is currently no direct evidence linking IL-1ß upregulation to downstream biomechanical changes. The objective of this study was to evaluate long-term agarose culture of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells as a potential in vitro model system to investigate this. Bovine NP cells were cultured in agarose for 49 days in a defined medium containing transforming growth factor-beta 3, after which both mechanical properties and composition were evaluated and compared to native NP. The mRNA levels of NP cell markers were compared to those of freshly isolated NP cells. Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content, aggregate modulus and hydraulic permeability of mature constructs were similar to native NP, and aggrecan and SOX9 mRNA levels were not significantly different from freshly isolated cells. To investigate direct links between IL-1ß and biomechanical changes, mature agarose constructs were treated with IL-1ß, and effects on biomechanical properties, extracellular matrix composition and mRNA levels were quantified. IL-1ß treatment resulted in upregulation of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 4, matrix metalloproteinase-13 and inducible nitric oxide sythase, decreased GAG and modulus, and increased permeability. To evaluate the model as a test platform for therapeutic intervention, co-treatment with IL-1ß and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) was evaluated. IL-1ra significantly attenuated degradative changes induced by IL-1ß. These results suggest that this in vitro model represents a reliable and cost-effective platform for evaluating new therapies for disc degeneration.