The ASCOD phenotyping of ischemic stroke (Updated ASCO Phenotyping).

ASCO phenotyping (A: atherosclerosis; S: small-vessel disease; C: cardiac pathology; O: other causes) assigns a degree of likelihood of causal relationship to every potential disease (1 for potentially causal, 2 for causality is uncertain, 3 for unlikely causal but the disease is present, 0 for absence of disease, and 9 for insufficient workup to rule out the disease) commonly encountered in ischemic stroke describing all underlying diseases in every patient. In this new evolution of ASCO called ASCOD, we have added a 'D' for dissection, recognizing that dissection is a very frequent disease in young stroke patients. We have also simplified the system by leaving out the 'levels of diagnostic evidence', which has been integrated into grades 9 and 0. Moreover, we have also changed the cutoff for significant carotid or intracranial stenosis from 70% to more commonly used 50% luminal stenosis, and added a cardiogenic stroke pattern using neuroimaging. ASCOD captures and weights the overlap between all underlying diseases present in ischemic stroke patients.

Can We Miniaturize CT Technology for a Successful Mobile Stroke Unit Roll-Out?

Mortality from stroke remains high in Australia, especially for patients located outside the metropolitan cities. This is because they have limited access to specialized stroke facilities for optimal stroke treatment. Mobile stroke units have the capability to take CT scanners out to the patient however current CT commercial scanner designs are large and heavy. As such, this paper aims to design and develop a lightweight CT scanner for use in a mobile stroke unit (either road-based or air-based ambulance) to bring healthcare solution to patients in the rural and remote areas. We used the engineering design optimization approach to redesign and reduce the weight of the existing CT scanner with without compromised it structural performance. We managed to reduce the weight the CT scanner by three-fold while reducing design costs by allowing numerous simulations to be performed using computer software to achieve our design goals. The results are not only useful to optimize CT scanner structure to retrofit on a mobile stroke unit, but also bring the medical device solution to the market and support scalable solution to the larger community. Such an advance will allow for improved equity in healthcare whereby patients can be treated irrespective of location.

Multidisciplinary approach to carotid stenting.

BACKGROUND: Stroke neurologists, vascular surgeons, interventional neuroradiologists and interventional cardiologists have embraced carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) because of potential advantages over carotid endarterectomy (CEA). At Austin Health, a multidisciplinary neuro-interventional group was formed to standardise indications and facilitate training. The aims of this study were to describe our organisational model and to determine whether 30-day complications and early outcomes were similar to those of major trials. METHODS: A clinical protocol was developed to ensure optimal management. CAS was performed on patients with high medical risk for CEA, with technically difficult anatomy for CEA, or who were randomised to CAS in a trial. RESULTS: From October 2003 to May 2008, 47 patients (34 male, mean age 71.5) underwent CAS of 50 carotid arteries. Forty-three cases had ipsilateral carotid territory symptoms within the previous 12 months. The main indications for CAS were high risk for CEA (n= 17) and randomised to CAS (n= 21). Interventionists were proctored in 27 cases. The procedural success rate was 94% with two cases abandoned because of anatomical problems and one because of on-table angina. Hypotension requiring vasopressor therapy occurred in 12 cases (24%). The duration of follow up was one to 44 months (mean 6.8 months). The 30-day rate of peri-procedural stroke or death was 6% and the one-year rate of peri-procedural stroke or death or subsequent ipsilateral stroke was 10.6%. Restenosis occurred in 13% (all asymptomatic). CONCLUSION: A multidisciplinary approach is a useful strategy for initiating and sustaining a CAS programme.

Where will the next generation of stroke treatments come from?

Remarkable progress has occurred over the last two decades in stroke interventions. Many have been developed on the basis of their efficacy in other disorders. This "inheritance" approach should continue, but two areas where completely novel therapeutic targets might emerge are the stimulation of neuroplasticity and unraveling the genetic code of stroke heterogeneity (Table 2). For the former, the next steps are to identify small-molecule, nontoxic compounds that most effectively enhance plasticity in animal models, and then subject them to clinical trial in humans. For the latter, more and larger-scale cooperative GWASs in carefully phenotyped stroke populations are required to better understand the polygenic nature of cerebrovascular disease. Then, the physiological relevance of genetic abnormalities can be determined in in vitro and in vivo systems before candidate compounds are developed.

Baseline diabetic status and admission blood glucose were poor prognostic factors in the EPITHET trial.

BACKGROUND: Previous data have suggested that diabetes and hyperglycemia predict poor outcome following stroke. We studied the prognostic impact of diabetes and admission blood glucose in the Echoplanar Imaging Thrombolytic Evaluation Trial (EPITHET). METHODS: EPITHET was a prospective randomized placebo-controlled trial of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) in the 3- to 6-hour time window. A preexisting diagnosis of diabetes was noted and baseline serum glucose was measured. RESULTS: Intravenous tPA attenuated infarct growth in non-diabetics, but not in diabetics (p = 0.029). In the tPA treatment group, admission blood glucose was higher among patients with poor functional outcome (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes and hyperglycemia attenuate the effects of tPA on infarct evolution. Future thrombolytic trials should consider randomizing patients by subgroups based on diabetic status and serum glucose levels.

Penumbral mismatch is underestimated using standard volumetric methods and this is exacerbated with time.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The mismatch between perfusion weighted images (PWI) and diffusion weighted images (DWI) using MR is increasingly being applied in patient selection for therapeutic trials. Two approaches to the calculation of the mismatch volume exist--the commonly used volumetric and the more precise co-registration method, the latter of which considers lesion topography. That there are differences in the mismatch volume analysed by each method and that these are time dependent was hypothesised. METHODS: Patients within 48 h of ischaemic stroke onset had baseline MR PWI/DWI mismatch and T2 outcome volumes at 3 months. Volumetric mismatch volume was defined as PWI minus DWI lesion. Co-registration mismatch volume was defined as the PWI defect lesion not overlapped by the co-registered DWI lesion. RESULTS: 72 patients of median age 74.0 years were studied. Median baseline MR was at 5.9 h (IQR 3.0, 20.4 h) after stroke onset. Consistent underestimation of the mismatch volume occurred using the volumetric method (volumetric median 9.3 ml, IQR 0, 63 ml; co-registration median 20.1 ml, IQR 3.2, 69.8 ml; p<0.0001). This difference increased with time from stroke onset (p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Volumetric analysis consistently underestimates the PWI/DWI mismatch volume compared with the more precise co-registration method. This effect increases with time.

Classification of stroke subtypes.

This article reviews published stroke subtype classification systems and offers rules and a basis for a new way to subtype stroke patients. Stroke subtyping can have different purposes, e.g. describing patients' characteristics in a clinical trial, grouping patients in an epidemiological study, careful phenotyping of patients in a genetic study, and classifying patients for therapeutic decision-making in daily practice. The classification should distinguish between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral venous thrombosis, and spinal cord stroke. Regarding the 4 main categories of etiologies of ischemic stroke (i.e. atherothrombotic, small vessel disease, cardioembolic, and other causes), the classification should reflect the most likely etiology without neglecting the vascular conditions that are also found (e.g. evidence of small vessel disease in the presence of severe large vessel obstructions). Phenotypes of large cohorts can also be characterized by surrogate markers or intermediate phenotypes (e.g. presence of internal carotid artery plaque, intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery, leukoaraiosis, microbleeds, or multiple lacunae). Parallel classifications (i.e. surrogate markers) may serve as within-study abnormalities to support research findings.

New approach to stroke subtyping: the A-S-C-O (phenotypic) classification of stroke.

We now propose a new approach to stroke subtyping. The concept is to introduce a complete 'stroke phenotyping' classification (i.e. stroke etiology and the presence of all underlying diseases, divided by grade of severity) as distinguished from past classifications that subtype strokes by characterizing only the most likely cause(s) of stroke. In this phenotype-based classification, every patient is characterized by A-S-C-O: A for atherosclerosis, S for small vessel disease, C for cardiac source, O for other cause. Each of the 4 phenotypes is graded 1, 2, or 3. One for 'definitely a potential cause of the index stroke', 2 for 'causality uncertain', 3 for 'unlikely a direct cause of the index stroke (but disease is present)'. When the disease is completely absent, the grade is 0; when grading is not possible due to insufficient work-up, the grade is 9. For example, a patient with a 70% ipsilateral symptomatic stenosis, leukoaraiosis, atrial fibrillation, and platelet count of 700,000/mm(3) would be classified as A1-S3-C1-O3. The same patient with a 70% ipsilateral stenosis, no brain imaging, normal ECG, and normal cardiac imaging would be identified as A1-S9-C0-O3. By introducing the 'level of diagnostic evidence', this classification recognizes the completeness, the quality, and the timing of the evaluation to grade the underlying diseases. Diagnostic evidence is graded in levels A, B, or C: A for direct demonstration by gold-standard diagnostic tests or criteria, B for indirect evidence or less sensitive or specific tests or criteria, and C for weak evidence in the absence of specific tests or criteria. With this new way of classifying patients, no information is neglected when the diagnosis is made, treatment can be adapted to the observed phenotypes and the most likely etiology (e.g. grade 1 in 1 of the 4 A-S-C-O phenotypes), and analyses in clinical research can be based on 1 of the 4 phenotypes (e.g. for genetic analysis purpose), while clinical trials can focus on 1 or several of these 4 phenotypes (e.g. focus on patients A1-A2-A3).

Imaging the penumbra - strategies to detect tissue at risk after ischemic stroke.

The aim of thrombolytic therapy after acute ischemic stroke is salvage of the ischemic penumbra. Several imaging techniques have been used to identify the penumbra in patients who may benefit from reperfusion beyond the currently narrow 3-hour time-window for thrombolysis. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), MRI and CT scans. We comment on concepts of clinical-imaging mismatch models and we explore the implications for clinical trials.

Does the 'high risk' patient with asymptomatic carotid stenosis really exist?

Recent evidence indicates that the risk of stroke symptoms in non-operated medically managed patients with asymptomatic severe carotid stenosis has fallen significantly over the last 25 years. This suggests concurrent improvements in vascular disease medical intervention efficacy. If the latest estimates of average annual stroke rate for non-operated patients are reflective of contemporary medical intervention and surgical stroke/death rates match those of the randomised trials, the current implication is that carotid surgery will not offer a stroke prevention advantage over medical intervention alone. Furthermore, it is still not possible to identify patients with asymptomatic severe carotid stenosis with a higher than average ipsilateral stroke risk despite current medical intervention. Even if such patients were one day reliably identified, they could also be at higher risk of stroke/death from instrumental intervention (surgery, angioplasty or stenting) and randomised trials will be required before being justification in routine clinical practice.

Access to stroke care units in Australian public hospitals: facts and temporal progress.

BACKGROUND: There is level I evidence that management of stroke patients in stroke units (SU) improves outcomes (death and institutionalization) by approximately 20%. In Australia, there is uncertainty as to the proportion of incident cases that have access to SU. Recent national and State-based policy initiatives to increase access to SU have been taken. However, objective evidence related to SU implementation progress is lacking. The aims of the study were (i) to determine the number of SU in Australian acute public hospitals in 2004, (ii) to describe hospitals according to national SU policy criteria and (iii) to compare results to the 1999 survey to track progress. METHODS: The method used in the study was a cross-sectional, postal survey technique. The participants were clinical representatives considered appropriate to describe stroke care within survey hospitals. RESULTS: The outcome of the study was presence of a SU according to an accepted definition. Response rate was 261/301 (87%). Sixty-one sites (23%) had either a SU and/or a dedicated stroke team. Fifty sites claimed to have a SU (19%). New South Wales with 23 had the most number of SU. Based on policy criteria, up to 64 sites could have a SU. In 1999, there were 35 public hospitals with a SU. CONCLUSION: Access to SU in Australian public hospitals remains low compared with other countries (Sweden, 70%). Implementation strategies supported by appropriate health policy to improve access are needed.

Carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid stenosis.

BACKGROUND: Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is of proven benefit in recently-symptomatic patients with severe carotid stenosis. Its role in asymptomatic stenosis is still debated. The Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) more than doubled the number of patients randomised to CEA trials. This revised review incorporates the recently published ACST results. OBJECTIVES: Our objective was to determine the effects of CEA for patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group Trials Register (searched May 2004), MEDLINE (1966 to May 2004), EMBASE (1980 to June 2004), Current Contents (1995 to January 1997), and reference lists of relevant articles. We contacted researchers in the field to identify additional published and unpublished studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: All completed randomised trials comparing CEA to medical treatment in patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers extracted data and assessed trial quality. Attempts were made to contact investigators to obtain missing information. MAIN RESULTS: Three trials with a total of 5223 patients were included. In these trials, the overall net excess of operation-related perioperative stroke or death was 2.9%. For the primary outcome of perioperative stroke or death or any subsequent stroke, patients undergoing CEA fared better than those treated medically (relative risk (RR) 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.57 to 0.83). Similarly, for the outcome of perioperative stroke or death or subsequent ipsilateral stroke, there was benefit for the surgical group (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.90). For the outcome of any stroke or death, there was a non-significant trend towards fewer events in the surgical group (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.02). Subgroup analyses were performed for the outcome of perioperative stroke or death or subsequent carotid stroke. CEA appeared more beneficial in men than in women and more beneficial in younger patients than in older patients although the data for age effect were inconclusive. There was no statistically significant difference between the treatment effect estimates in patients with different grades of stenosis but the data were insufficient. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Despite about a 3% perioperative stroke or death rate, CEA for asymptomatic carotid stenosis reduces the risk of ipsilateral stroke, and any stroke, by approximately 30% over three years. However, the absolute risk reduction is small (approximately 1% per annum over the first few years of follow up in the two largest and most recent trials) but it could be higher with longer follow up.

An unusual disease presenting at an unusual age: Susac's syndrome.

Susac's syndrome is a rare disease of unknown aetiology affecting the small vessels of the retina, brain, and cochlea. We present the case of a 55-year-old female, the oldest patient yet described with the condition, and highlight the syndrome's clinical features.

Salvage of the PWI/DWI mismatch up to 48 h from stroke onset leads to favorable clinical outcome.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In acute ischemic stroke perfusion/diffusion-weighted image, mismatch using magnetic resonance imaging approximates the ischemic penumbra. For early time windows, mismatch salvage improves clinical outcomes, but uncertainty exists at later time epochs. We hypothesized that (a) mismatch may exist up to 48 h; (b) the proportion of mismatch salvage is time independent; and (c) when salvaged, it improves clinical outcomes. METHODS: Magnetic resonance imaging was performed within 48 h of ischemic stroke. Perfusion-weighted image was defined by relative Tmax two-second delay. Perfusion/diffusion-weighted image mismatch was the perfusion-weighted image not overlapped by the diffusion-weighted image when coregistered. Infarct volume and disability (modified Rankin Score) were assessed at three-months. Mismatch salvage was the region not overlapped by final infarction. Favorable outcome was defined as modified Rankin Score 0-1. RESULTS: Sixty-six patients were studied [mean age 69.9 years (standard deviation 13.1), initial median National Institute of Health Stroke Scale 9.0 (interquartile range 6.0, 18.3)]. There was no relationship between time of stroke onset and the proportion of mismatch salvaged (P = 0.73). Age (adjusted odds ratio = 0.92, 95% confidence interval 0.86-0.98, P = 0.01), initial National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (adjusted odds ratio = 0.80, 95% confidence interval 0.70-0.92, P < 0.01), mismatch volume (adjusted odds ratio = 0.98, 95% confidence interval 0.968-0.1, P = 0.05), and percentage of mismatch salvage (adjusted odds ratio = 1.04, 95% confidence interval 0.99-1.07, P = 0.05) were independently associated with favorable outcome. CONCLUSION: Using coregistered perfusion/diffusion-weighted image criteria, mismatch persists up to 48 h post stroke. For the whole group, the proportion of mismatch salvage remains independent of time and, although the effect is small, its salvage is independently associated with improved clinical outcomes at three-months. Larger sample sizes are needed to determine the time limit for mismatch salvage.

ICARUSS, the Integrated Care for the Reduction of Secondary Stroke trial: rationale and design of a randomized controlled trial of a multimodal intervention to prevent recurrent stroke in patients with a recent cerebrovascular event, ACTRN = 12611000264987.

BACKGROUND: The majority of strokes, both ischaemic and haemorrhagic, are attributable to a relatively small number of risk factors which are readily manageable in primary care setting. Implementation of best-practice recommendations for risk factor management is calculated to reduce stroke recurrence by around 80%. However, risk factor management in stroke survivors has generally been poor at primary care level. A model of care that supports long-term effective risk factor management is needed. AIM: To determine whether the model of Integrated Care for the Reduction of Recurrent Stroke (ICARUSS) will, through promotion of implementation of best-practice recommendations for risk factor management reduce the combined incidence of stroke, myocardial infarction and vascular death in patients with recent stroke or transient ischaemic attack (TIA) of the brain or eye. DESIGN: A prospective, Australian, multicentre, randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Academic stroke units in Melbourne, Perth and the John Hunter Hospital, New South Wales. SUBJECTS: 1000 stroke survivors recruited as from March 2007 with a recent (<3 months) stroke (ischaemic or haemorrhagic) or a TIA (brain or eye). RANDOMIZATION: Randomization and data collection are performed by means of a central computer generated telephone system (IVRS). INTERVENTION: Exposure to the ICARUSS model of integrated care or usual care. PRIMARY OUTCOME: The composite of stroke, MI or death from any vascular cause, whichever occurs first. SECONDARY OUTCOMES: Risk factor management in the community, depression, quality of life, disability and dementia. STATISTICAL POWER: With 1000 patients followed up for a median of one-year, with a recurrence rate of 7-10% per year in patients exposed to usual care, the study will have at least 80% power to detect a significant reduction in primary end-points CONCLUSION: The ICARUSS study aims to recruit and follow up patients between 2007 and 2013 and demonstrate the effectiveness of exposure to the ICARUSS model in stroke survivors to reduce recurrent stroke or vascular events and promote the implementation of best practice risk factor management at primary care level.

Incidence of the major stroke subtypes: initial findings from the North East Melbourne stroke incidence study (NEMESIS).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Population-based stroke incidence studies are the only accurate way to determine the number of strokes that occur in a given society. Because the major stroke subtypes have different patterns of incidence and outcome, information on the natural history of stroke subtypes is essential. The purpose of the present study was to determine the incidence and case-fatality rate of the major stroke subtypes in a geographically defined region of Melbourne, Australia. METHODS: All suspected strokes that occurred among 133 816 residents of suburbs north and east of Melbourne, Australia, during a 12-month period of 1996 and 1997 were identified and assessed. Multiple overlapping sources were used to ascertain cases, and standard criteria for stroke and case-fatality were used. Stroke subtypes were defined by CT, MRI, and autopsy. RESULTS: Three hundred eighty-one strokes occurred among 353 persons during the study period, with 276 (72%) being first-ever-in-a-lifetime strokes. Of these, 72.5% (95% CI 67.2% to 77.7%) were cerebral infarction, 14.5% (95% CI 10.3% to 18.6%) were intracerebral hemorrhage, 4.3% (95% CI 1.9% to 6.8%) were subarachnoid hemorrhage, and 8.7% (95% CI 5.4% to 12.0%) were stroke of undetermined type. The 28-day case-fatality rate was 12% (95% CI 7% to 16%) for cerebral infarction, 45% (95% CI 30% to 60%) for intracerebral hemorrhage, 50% (95% CI 22% to 78%) for subarachnoid hemorrhage, and 38% (95% CI 18% to 57%) for stroke of undetermined type. CONCLUSIONS: The overall distribution of stroke subtypes and 28-day case-fatality rates are not significantly different from those of most European countries or the United States. There may, however, be some differences in the incidence of subtypes within Australia.

Stroke incidence on the east coast of Australia: the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Community-based stroke incidence studies are the most accurate way of explaining mortality trends and developing public health policy. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of stroke in a geographically defined region of Melbourne, Australia. METHODS: All suspected strokes occurring in a population of 133 816 residents in suburbs north and east of Melbourne, Australia, during a 12-month period of 1996 and 1997 were found and assessed. Multiple overlapping sources were used to ascertain cases, and standard definitions and criteria for stroke and case fatality were used. RESULTS: A total of 381 strokes occurred among 353 people during the study period, 276 (72%) of which were first-ever-in-a-lifetime strokes. The crude annual incidence rate (first-ever strokes) was 206 (95% CI, 182 to 231) per 100 000 per year overall, 195 (95% CI, 161 to 229) for males, and 217 (95% CI, 182 to 252) for females. The corresponding rates adjusted to the "world" population were 100 (95% CI, 80 to 119) overall, 113 (95% CI, 92 to 134) for males, and 89 (95% CI, 70 to 107) for females. The 28-day case fatality rate for first-ever strokes was 20% (95% CI, 16% to 25%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence rate of stroke in our population-based study is similar to that of many European studies but is significantly higher than that observed on the west coast of Australia.

Baseline blood pressure but not early computed tomography changes predicts major hemorrhage after streptokinase in acute ischemic stroke.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Intracerebral hemorrhage is the most serious complication of thrombolytic therapy for stroke. We explored factors associated with this complication in the Australian Streptokinase Trial. METHODS: The initial CT scans (< or =4 hours after stroke) of 270 patients were reviewed retrospectively by an expert panel for early signs of ischemia and classified into the following 3 categories: no signs or < or =1/3 or >1/3 of the vascular territory. Hemorrhage on late CT scans was categorized as major or minor on the basis of location and mass effect. Stepwise, backward elimination, multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify risk factors for each hemorrhage category. RESULTS: Major hemorrhage occurred in 21% of streptokinase (SK) and 4% of placebo patients. Predictors of major hemorrhage were SK treatment (odds ratio [OR], 6.40; 95% CI, 2.50 to 16.36) and elevated systolic blood pressure before therapy (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.05). Baseline systolic blood pressure >165 mm Hg in SK-treated patients resulted in a >25% risk of major secondary hemorrhage. Early ischemic CT changes, either < or =1/3 or >1/3, were not associated with major hemorrhage (OR, 1.58; 95% CI, 0.65 to 3.83; and OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 0.45 to 2.76, respectively). Minor hemorrhage occurred in 30% of the SK and 26% of the placebo group. Predictors of minor hemorrhage were male sex, severe stroke, early CT changes, and SK treatment. Ninety-one percent of patients with major hemorrhage deteriorated clinically compared with 23% with minor hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: SK increased the risk of both minor and major hemorrhage. Major hemorrhage was also more likely in patients with elevated baseline systolic blood pressure. However, early CT changes did not predict major hemorrhage. Results from this study highlight the importance of baseline systolic blood pressure as a potential cause of hemorrhage in patients undergoing thrombolysis.

Informal care for stroke survivors: results from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Informal caregivers play an important role in the lives of stroke patients, but the cost of providing this care has not been estimated. The purpose of this study was to determine the nature and amount of informal care provided to stroke patients and to estimate the economic cost of that care. METHODS: The primary caregivers of stroke patients registered in the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS) were interviewed at 3, 6, and 12 months after stroke, and the nature and amount of informal care provided were documented. The opportunity and replacement costs of informal care for all first-ever-in-a-lifetime strokes (excluding subarachnoid hemorrhages) that occurred in 1997 in Australia were estimated. RESULTS: Among 3-month stroke survivors, 74% required assistance with activities of daily living and received informal care from family or friends. Two thirds of primary caregivers were women, and most primary caregivers (>90%) provided care during family or leisure time. Total first-year caregiver time costs for all first-ever-in-a-lifetime strokes were estimated to be A$21.7 million (opportunity cost approach) or A$42.5 million (replacement cost approach), and the present values of lifetime caregiver time costs were estimated to be A$171.4 million (opportunity cost approach) or A$331.8 million (replacement cost approach). CONCLUSIONS: Informal care for stroke survivors represents a significant hidden cost to Australian society. Because our community is rapidly aging, this informal care burden may increase significantly in the future.

Cost of stroke in Australia from a societal perspective: results from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Accurate information about resource use and costs of stroke is necessary for informed health service planning. The purpose of this study was to determine the patterns of resource use among stroke patients and to estimate the total costs (direct service use and indirect production losses) of stroke (excluding SAH) in Australia for 1997. METHODS: An incidence-based cost-of-illness model was developed, incorporating data obtained from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS). The costs of stroke during the first year after stroke and the present value of total lifetime costs of stroke were estimated. RESULTS: The total first-year costs of all first-ever-in-a lifetime strokes (SAH excluded) that occurred in Australia during 1997 were estimated to be A$555 million (US$420 million), and the present value of lifetime costs was estimated to be A$1.3 billion (US$985 million). The average cost per case during the first 12 months and over a lifetime was A$18 956 (US$14 361) and A$44 428 (US$33 658), respectively. The most important categories of cost during the first year were acute hospitalization (A$154 million), inpatient rehabilitation (A$150 million), and nursing home care (A$63 million). The present value of lifetime indirect costs was estimated to be A$34 million. CONCLUSIONS: Similar to other studies, hospital and nursing home costs contributed most to the total cost of stroke (excluding SAH) in Australia. Inpatient rehabilitation accounts for approximately 27% of total first-year costs. Given the magnitude of these costs, investigation of the cost-effectiveness of rehabilitation services should become a priority in this community.