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1.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 117(46): 28582-28588, 2020 11 17.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33139549

RESUMO

Network science and data analytics are used to quantify static and dynamic structures in George R. R. Martin's epic novels, A Song of Ice and Fire, works noted for their scale and complexity. By tracking the network of character interactions as the story unfolds, it is found that structural properties remain approximately stable and comparable to real-world social networks. Furthermore, the degrees of the most connected characters reflect a cognitive limit on the number of concurrent social connections that humans tend to maintain. We also analyze the distribution of time intervals between significant deaths measured with respect to the in-story timeline. These are consistent with power-law distributions commonly found in interevent times for a range of nonviolent human activities in the real world. We propose that structural features in the narrative that are reflected in our actual social world help readers to follow and to relate to the story, despite its sprawling extent. It is also found that the distribution of intervals between significant deaths in chapters is different to that for the in-story timeline; it is geometric rather than power law. Geometric distributions are memoryless in that the time since the last death does not inform as to the time to the next. This provides measurable support for the widely held view that significant deaths in A Song of Ice and Fire are unpredictable chapter by chapter.


Assuntos
Obras de Ficção como Assunto , Narração , Análise de Rede Social , Ciência de Dados
2.
J Soc Pers Relat ; 39(12): 3660-3679, 2022 Dec.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36398165

RESUMO

Assortative mating is a phenomenon in which romantic partners typically resemble each other at a level greater than chance. There is converging evidence that social behaviours are subject to assortative mating, though less is known regarding social cognition. Social functioning requires the ability to identify and understand the mental states of others, i.e., theory of mind. The present study recruited a sample of 102 heterosexual couples via an online survey to test if theory of mind as measured using facial expressions (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test) or language (Stiller-Dunbar Stories Task) is associated with assortative mating. Results provide evidence of assortative mating for theory of mind via facial expressions, though there was no such effect for theory of mind via language. Assortative mating for theory of mind via facial expressions was not moderated by length of relationship nor by partner similarity in age, educational attainment, or religiosity, all variables relevant to social stratification. This suggests assortative mating for theory of mind via facial expressions is better explained by partners being alike at the start of their relationship (initial assortment) rather than becoming similar through sustained social interaction (convergence), and by people seeking out partners that are like themselves (active assortment) rather than simply pairing with those from similar demographic backgrounds (social homogamy).

3.
Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol ; 56(3): 417-428, 2021 Mar.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33037448

RESUMO

INTRODUCTION: Previous studies have shown that engaging in formal social participation may protect against declining mental health, but social network size (the number of close social ties a person has) may moderate the relationship. We assessed the potential moderating role of social network size using longitudinal data. METHODS: Nationally representative data from two consecutive waves (2011, 2013) of the SHARE survey were analyzed. The data consisted of 38,300 adults from 13 European countries aged 50 years and older in 2011. Measures pertaining to formal social participation, social network size, quality of life, and depression symptoms were used. Multivariable linear regression models were conducted. RESULTS: The majority of participants (over 70% of the sample) had a social network size of four or less close social ties. We identified significant moderations in both models. Individuals with relatively few close social ties may have benefitted from formal social participation both in terms of reductions in depression symptoms and increases in quality of life, while formal social participation among those with many social ties did not appear to be beneficial, and may even to some extent have been detrimental. CONCLUSIONS: Declines in mental health specifically among those with relatively few close social ties could potentially be prevented through the promotion of formal social participation. It is possible that such strategies could have a greater impact by specifically targeting individuals that are otherwise socially isolated. High levels of formal participation among those with relatively many close social ties may not be pragmatically beneficial.


Assuntos
Aposentadoria , Participação Social , Idoso , Envelhecimento , Europa (Continente) , Humanos , Saúde Mental , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Qualidade de Vida , Rede Social
4.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 115(33): 8316-8321, 2018 08 14.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30049707

RESUMO

The typical human personal social network contains about 150 relationships including kin, friends, and acquaintances, organized into a set of hierarchically inclusive layers of increasing size but decreasing emotional intensity. Data from a number of different sources reveal that these inclusive layers exhibit a constant scaling ratio of [Formula: see text] While the overall size of the networks has been connected to our cognitive capacity, no mechanism explaining why the networks present a layered structure with a consistent scaling has been proposed. Here we show that the existence of a heterogeneous cost to relationships (in terms of time or cognitive investment), together with a limitation in the total capacity an individual has to invest in them, can naturally explain the existence of layers and, when the cost function is linear, explain the scaling between them. We develop a one-parameter Bayesian model that fits the empirical data remarkably well. In addition, the model predicts the existence of a contrasting regime in the case of small communities, such that the layers have an inverted structure (increasing size with increasing emotional intensity). We test the model with five communities and provide clear evidence of the existence of the two predicted regimes. Our model explains, based on first principles, the emergence of structure in the organization of personal networks and allows us to predict a rare phenomenon whose existence we confirm empirically.


Assuntos
Cognição , Alocação de Recursos , Apoio Social , Teorema de Bayes , Feminino , Humanos , Relações Interpessoais , Masculino
5.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 114(20): 5300-5305, 2017 05 16.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28461468

RESUMO

There is growing evidence that the number and quality of social relationships have substantial impacts on health, well-being, and longevity, and, at least in animals, on reproductive fitness. Although it is widely recognized that these outcomes are mediated by a number of neuropeptides, the roles these play remain debated. We suggest that an overemphasis on one neuropeptide (oxytocin), combined with a failure to distinguish between different social domains, has obscured the complexity involved. We use variation in 33 SNPs for the receptor genes for six well-known social neuropeptides in relation to three separate domains of sociality (social disposition, dyadic relationships, and social networks) to show that three neuropeptides (ß-endorphin, oxytocin, and dopamine) play particularly important roles, with each being associated predominantly with a different social domain. However, endorphins and dopamine have a much wider compass than oxytocin (whose effects are confined to romantic/reproductive relationships and often do not survive control for other neuropeptides). In contrast, vasopressin, serotonin, and testosterone play only limited roles.


Assuntos
Receptores Dopaminérgicos/genética , Receptores Opioides/genética , Receptores de Ocitocina/genética , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Dopamina/genética , Dopamina/metabolismo , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Neuropeptídeos/genética , Neuropeptídeos/metabolismo , Ocitocina/genética , Ocitocina/metabolismo , Receptores Dopaminérgicos/metabolismo , Receptores Opioides/metabolismo , Saliva , Comportamento Social , Rede Social , Apoio Social , beta-Endorfina/genética , beta-Endorfina/metabolismo
6.
Proc Biol Sci ; 286(1901): 20190467, 2019 04 24.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31014213

RESUMO

Many species use touching for reinforcing social structures, and particularly, non-human primates use social grooming for managing their social networks. However, it is still unclear how social touch contributes to the maintenance and reinforcement of human social networks. Human studies in Western cultures suggest that the body locations where touch is allowed are associated with the strength of the emotional bond between the person touched and the toucher. However, it is unknown to what extent this relationship is culturally universal and generalizes to non-Western cultures. Here, we compared relationship-specific, bodily touch allowance maps across one Western ( N = 386, UK) and one East Asian ( N = 255, Japan) country. In both cultures, the strength of the emotional bond was linearly associated with permissible touch area. However, Western participants experienced social touching as more pleasurable than Asian participants. These results indicate a similarity of emotional bonding via social touch between East Asian and Western cultures.


Assuntos
Comparação Transcultural , Tato , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Japão , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Apego ao Objeto , Comportamento Social , Reino Unido
7.
Am J Primatol ; 81(1): e22940, 2019 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30604890

RESUMO

We develop a time budget model for the hylobatid family with the aim of assessing the extent to which their contemporary and historical biogeographic distributions might be explained by ecological constraints. The model uses local climate to predict time budgets, and from this the limiting size of social group that animals could manage at a given location. The model predicts maximum group sizes that vary between 3 and 15 within the taxon's current distribution, indicating that the combination of their dietary and locomotor styles with the kinds of habitats they inhabit radically constrain group size. Beyond the edges of their current distribution, sustainable group size rapidly tends to zero, although if they had been able to bypass some of these areas, they would have found very suitable habitats in southern India and beyond the Wallace Line. While travel time would be a major constraint on group size at larger group sizes, as it is in great apes, the main factor limiting the gibbon's current distribution is the time they need to spend resting that is imposed on them by the environment. The model also indicates that gibbons would not now be able to survive in regions of central and southeastern China where they are known to have occurred within historical times, perhaps because historical climate change following the Little Ice Age of the C18th made these regions uninhabitable for them. Finally, our results indicate that gibbons have the ecological capacity to live in larger groups than they do, making it unlikely that their adoption of monogamy reflects purely ecological constraints.


Assuntos
Distribuição Animal/fisiologia , Ecossistema , Hylobates/fisiologia , Animais , Comportamento Animal/fisiologia , Clima , Modelos Teóricos , Comportamento Social , Fatores de Tempo
8.
Ann Hum Biol ; 51(1): 2359920, 2024 Feb.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38994897
9.
J Neurosci ; 37(25): 6125-6131, 2017 06 21.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28536272

RESUMO

The size of human social networks significantly exceeds the network that can be maintained by social grooming or touching in other primates. It has been proposed that endogenous opioid release after social laughter would provide a neurochemical pathway supporting long-term relationships in humans (Dunbar, 2012), yet this hypothesis currently lacks direct neurophysiological support. We used PET and the µ-opioid-receptor (MOR)-specific ligand [11C]carfentanil to quantify laughter-induced endogenous opioid release in 12 healthy males. Before the social laughter scan, the subjects watched laughter-inducing comedy clips with their close friends for 30 min. Before the baseline scan, subjects spent 30 min alone in the testing room. Social laughter increased pleasurable sensations and triggered endogenous opioid release in thalamus, caudate nucleus, and anterior insula. In addition, baseline MOR availability in the cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices was associated with the rate of social laughter. In a behavioral control experiment, pain threshold-a proxy of endogenous opioidergic activation-was elevated significantly more in both male and female volunteers after watching laughter-inducing comedy versus non-laughter-inducing drama in groups. Modulation of the opioidergic activity by social laughter may be an important neurochemical pathway that supports the formation, reinforcement, and maintenance of human social bonds.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Social contacts are vital to humans. The size of human social networks significantly exceeds the network that can be maintained by social grooming in other primates. Here, we used PET to show that endogenous opioid release after social laughter may provide a neurochemical mechanism supporting long-term relationships in humans. Participants were scanned twice: after a 30 min social laughter session and after spending 30 min alone in the testing room (baseline). Endogenous opioid release was stronger after laughter versus the baseline scan. Opioid receptor density in the frontal cortex predicted social laughter rates. Modulation of the opioidergic activity by social laughter may be an important neurochemical mechanism reinforcing and maintaining social bonds between humans.


Assuntos
Química Encefálica/fisiologia , Endorfinas/metabolismo , Riso/fisiologia , Meio Social , Adulto , Mapeamento Encefálico , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Apego ao Objeto , Prazer , Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons , Receptores Opioides mu/efeitos dos fármacos , Receptores Opioides mu/metabolismo , Adulto Jovem
10.
Evol Hum Behav ; 39(1): 106-111, 2018 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29333060

RESUMO

We examine community longevity as a function of group size in three historical, small scale agricultural samples. Community sizes of 50, 150 and 500 are disproportionately more common than other sizes; they also have greater longevity. These values mirror the natural layerings in hunter-gatherer societies and contemporary personal networks. In addition, a religious ideology seems to play an important role in allowing larger communities to maintain greater cohesion for longer than a strictly secular ideology does. The differences in optimal community size may reflect the demands of different ecologies, economies and social contexts, but, as yet, we have no explanation as to why these numbers seem to function socially so much more effectively than other values.

11.
PLoS Comput Biol ; 13(11): e1005824, 2017 Nov.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29161270

RESUMO

Timings of human activities are marked by circadian clocks which in turn are entrained to different environmental signals. In an urban environment the presence of artificial lighting and various social cues tend to disrupt the natural entrainment with the sunlight. However, it is not completely understood to what extent this is the case. Here we exploit the large-scale data analysis techniques to study the mobile phone calling activity of people in large cities to infer the dynamics of urban daily rhythms. From the calling patterns of about 1,000,000 users spread over different cities but lying inside the same time-zone, we show that the onset and termination of the calling activity synchronizes with the east-west progression of the sun. We also find that the onset and termination of the calling activity of users follows a yearly dynamics, varying across seasons, and that its timings are entrained to solar midnight. Furthermore, we show that the average mid-sleep time of people living in urban areas depends on the age and gender of each cohort as a result of biological and social factors.


Assuntos
Telefone Celular , Atividades Humanas , Movimento , Adulto , Idoso , Idoso de 80 Anos ou mais , Algoritmos , Relógios Circadianos , Ritmo Circadiano , Cidades , Coleta de Dados , Meio Ambiente , Feminino , Humanos , Luz , Iluminação , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Probabilidade , Estações do Ano , Sono , Temperatura , Fatores de Tempo , População Urbana , Adulto Jovem
12.
Biol Lett ; 14(12)2018 12 05.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30518641

RESUMO

The ratio between the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) has been widely used as a proxy for fetal exposure to androgens and has been linked to a number of sociosexual traits in humans. However, the role of genes in this equation remains unknown. Here (N = 474), we test, firstly, for associations between 2D:4D and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in nine neurochemical receptor genes (AR, OXTR, AVPR1A, OPRM1, DRD1/2, ANKK1, 5HTR1A/2A), and secondly, whether digit ratios mediate the relationship between genetic variation and sociosexuality. We demonstrate significant associations between AR, OPRM1 and AVPR1A and 2D:4D. Moreover, mediation analysis indicates that, in women, AR and OPRM1 variation drives digit ratios, which are related positively to impulsivity and, for OPRM1, negatively to romantic relationship quality. Although these findings are subject to multiple testing issues, this study provides preliminary evidence that in women genetic factors may affect both impulsivity and perceived relationship quality through influencing factors indexed by digit ratios.


Assuntos
Dedos/anatomia & histologia , Comportamento Impulsivo , Receptores Androgênicos/genética , Receptores Opioides mu/genética , Receptores de Vasopressinas/genética , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Feminino , Humanos , Relações Interpessoais , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Caracteres Sexuais , Comportamento Social
13.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 112(45): 13811-6, 2015 Nov 10.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26504228

RESUMO

Nonhuman primates use social touch for maintenance and reinforcement of social structures, yet the role of social touch in human bonding in different reproductive, affiliative, and kinship-based relationships remains unresolved. Here we reveal quantified, relationship-specific maps of bodily regions where social touch is allowed in a large cross-cultural dataset (N = 1,368 from Finland, France, Italy, Russia, and the United Kingdom). Participants were shown front and back silhouettes of human bodies with a word denoting one member of their social network. They were asked to color, on separate trials, the bodily regions where each individual in their social network would be allowed to touch them. Across all tested cultures, the total bodily area where touching was allowed was linearly dependent (mean r(2) = 0.54) on the emotional bond with the toucher, but independent of when that person was last encountered. Close acquaintances and family members were touched for more reasons than less familiar individuals. The bodily area others are allowed to touch thus represented, in a parametric fashion, the strength of the relationship-specific emotional bond. We propose that the spatial patterns of human social touch reflect an important mechanism supporting the maintenance of social bonds.


Assuntos
Manobra Psicológica , Relações Interpessoais , Apego ao Objeto , Tato , Adulto , Pontos de Referência Anatômicos , Europa (Continente) , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Análise de Regressão , Autorrelato
14.
Evol Hum Behav ; 38(2): 175-180, 2017 03.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29333057

RESUMO

In small scale societies, lethal attacks on another individual usually invite revenge by the victim's family. We might expect those who perpetrate such attacks to do so only when their own support network (mainly family) is larger than that of the potential victim so as to minimise the risk of retaliation. Using data from Icelandic family sagas, we show that this prediction holds whether we consider biological kin or affinal kin (in-laws): on average, killers had twice as many relatives as their victims. These findings reinforce the importance of kin as a source of implicit protection even when they are not physically present. The results also support Hughes' (1988) claim that affines are biological kin because of the shared genetic interests they have in the offspring generation.

15.
J Theor Biol ; 417: 20-27, 2017 03 21.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28095305

RESUMO

Traditional human societies are organised around kinship, and use kinship networks to generate large scale community projects. This is made possible by a combination of linguistic kin recognition, a uniquely human trait, which is mediated by the reliability of kin as collaborators. When effective fertility falls, this results in two simultaneous effects on social networks: there are fewer kin that can be relied on, and the limiting effect of the local kin-clustering becomes stronger. To capture this phenomenon, we used a model of kinship lineages to build populations with a range of fertility levels combined with a behavioural synchrony model to measure the efficiency of collective action generated on kin networks within populations. Our findings suggest that, whenever effective cooperation depends on kinship, falling fertility creates a crisis when it results in too few kin to join the community project. We conclude that, when societies transition to small effective kin networks, due to falling fertility, increased relative distance to kin due to urbanisation or high mortality due to war or epidemics, they will be able to remain socially cohesive only if they replace disappearing kin networks with quasi-kin alternatives based on membership of guilds or clubs.


Assuntos
Evolução Cultural , Família , Fertilidade , Rede Social , Sociedades/organização & administração , Ciências Biocomportamentais , Cultura , Humanos , Sociedades/tendências
16.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 111(3): 942-7, 2014 Jan 21.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24395777

RESUMO

The social network maintained by a focal individual, or ego, is intrinsically dynamic and typically exhibits some turnover in membership over time as personal circumstances change. However, the consequences of such changes on the distribution of an ego's network ties are not well understood. Here we use a unique 18-mo dataset that combines mobile phone calls and survey data to track changes in the ego networks and communication patterns of students making the transition from school to university or work. Our analysis reveals that individuals display a distinctive and robust social signature, captured by how interactions are distributed across different alters. Notably, for a given ego, these social signatures tend to persist over time, despite considerable turnover in the identity of alters in the ego network. Thus, as new network members are added, some old network members either are replaced or receive fewer calls, preserving the overall distribution of calls across network members. This is likely to reflect the consequences of finite resources such as the time available for communication, the cognitive and emotional effort required to sustain close relationships, and the ability to make emotional investments.


Assuntos
Comunicação , Ego , Apoio Social , Adolescente , Desenvolvimento do Adolescente , Telefone Celular , Emoções , Feminino , Humanos , Relações Interpessoais , Estudos Longitudinais , Masculino , Modelos Estatísticos , Análise de Regressão , Estudantes , Inquéritos e Questionários , Reino Unido , Universidades , Adulto Jovem
17.
Neuroimage ; 138: 242-247, 2016 Sep.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27238727

RESUMO

In non-human primates, opioid-receptor blockade increases social grooming, and the endogenous opioid system has therefore been hypothesized to support maintenance of long-term relationships in humans as well. Here we tested whether social touch modulates opioidergic activation in humans using in vivo positron emission tomography (PET). Eighteen male participants underwent two PET scans with [11C]carfentanil, a ligand specific to µ-opioid receptors (MOR). During the social touch scan, the participants lay in the scanner while their partners caressed their bodies in a non-sexual fashion. In the baseline scan, participants lay alone in the scanner. Social touch triggered pleasurable sensations and increased MOR availability in the thalamus, striatum, and frontal, cingulate, and insular cortices. Modulation of activity of the opioid system by social touching might provide a neurochemical mechanism reinforcing social bonds between humans.


Assuntos
Encéfalo/metabolismo , Apego ao Objeto , Prazer/fisiologia , Receptores Opioides mu/metabolismo , Comportamento Social , Percepção do Tato/fisiologia , Tato/fisiologia , Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Imagem Molecular/métodos , Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons/métodos
18.
J Hum Evol ; 94: 72-82, 2016 05.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27178459

RESUMO

Bipedality evolved early in hominin evolution, and at some point was associated with hair loss over most of the body. One classic explanation (Wheeler 1984: J. Hum. Evol. 13, 91-98) was that these traits evolved to reduce heat overload when australopiths were foraging in more open tropical habitats where they were exposed to the direct effects of sunlight at midday. A recent critique of this model (Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011a: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108, 20965-20969) argued that it ignored the endogenous costs of heat generated by locomotion, and concluded that only hair loss provided a significant reduction in heat load. We add two crucial corrections to this model (the altitude at which australopiths actually lived and activity scheduling) and show that when these are included there are substantial reductions in heat load for bipedal locomotion even for furred animals. In addition, we add one further consideration to the model: we extend the analysis across the full 24 h day, and show that fur loss could not have evolved until much later because of the thermoregulatory costs this would have incurred at the altitudes where australopiths actually lived. Fur loss is most likely associated with the exploitation of open habitats at much lower altitudes at a much later date by the genus Homo.


Assuntos
Altitude , Evolução Biológica , Cabelo/anatomia & histologia , Hominidae/fisiologia , Locomoção , Animais , Regulação da Temperatura Corporal , Metabolismo Energético , Humanos , Modelos Biológicos
19.
Evol Hum Behav ; 37(5): 343-349, 2016 Sep.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27540276

RESUMO

Moving in synchrony leads to cooperative behaviour and feelings of social closeness, and dance (involving synchronisation to others and music) may cause social bonding, possibly as a consequence of released endorphins. This study uses an experimental paradigm to determine which aspects of synchrony in dance are associated with changes in pain threshold (a proxy for endorphin release) and social bonding between strangers. Those who danced in synchrony experienced elevated pain thresholds, whereas those in the partial and asynchrony conditions experienced no analgesic effects. Similarly, those in the synchrony condition reported being more socially bonded, although they did not perform more cooperatively in an economic game. This experiment suggests that dance encourages social bonding amongst co-actors by stimulating the production of endorphins, but may not make people more altruistic. We conclude that dance may have been an important human behaviour evolved to encourage social closeness between strangers.

20.
Evol Hum Behav ; 37(2): 152-158, 2016 Mar 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27158219

RESUMO

Over our evolutionary history, humans have faced the problem of how to create and maintain social bonds in progressively larger groups compared to those of our primate ancestors. Evidence from historical and anthropological records suggests that group music-making might act as a mechanism by which this large-scale social bonding could occur. While previous research has shown effects of music making on social bonds in small group contexts, the question of whether this effect 'scales up' to larger groups is particularly important when considering the potential role of music for large-scale social bonding. The current study recruited individuals from a community choir that met in both small (n = 20 - 80) and large (a 'megachoir' combining individuals from the smaller subchoirs n = 232) group contexts. Participants gave self-report measures (via a survey) of social bonding and had pain threshold measurements taken (as a proxy for endorphin release) before and after 90 minutes of singing. Results showed that feelings of inclusion, connectivity, positive affect, and measures of endorphin release all increased across singing rehearsals and that the influence of group singing was comparable for pain thresholds in the large versus small group context. Levels of social closeness were found to be greater at pre- and post-levels for the small choir condition. However, the large choir condition experienced a greater change in social closeness as compared to the small condition. The finding that singing together fosters social closeness - even in large contexts where individuals are not known to each other - is consistent with evolutionary accounts that emphasize the role of music in social bonding, particularly in the context of creating larger cohesive groups than other primates are able to manage.

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