Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative disorders: Potential therapeutic application of mitochondrial transfer to central nervous system-residing cells.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is reiteratively involved in the pathogenesis of diverse neurodegenerative diseases. Current in vitro and in vivo approaches support that mitochondrial dysfunction is branded by several molecular and cellular defects, whose impact at different levels including the calcium and iron homeostasis, energetic balance and/or oxidative stress, makes it difficult to resolve them collectively given their multifactorial nature. Mitochondrial transfer offers an overall solution since it contains the replacement of damage mitochondria by healthy units. Therefore, this review provides an introducing view on the structure and energy-related functions of mitochondria as well as their dynamics. In turn, we summarize current knowledge on how these features are deregulated in different neurodegenerative diseases, including frontotemporal dementia, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Friedreich ataxia, Alzheimer´s disease, Parkinson´s disease, and Huntington's disease. Finally, we analyzed current advances in mitochondrial transfer between diverse cell types that actively participate in neurodegenerative processes, and how they might be projected toward developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Mitochondrial transfer from MSCs to T cells induces Treg differentiation and restricts inflammatory response.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have fueled ample translation for the treatment of immune-mediated diseases. They exert immunoregulatory and tissue-restoring effects. MSC-mediated transfer of mitochondria (MitoT) has been demonstrated to rescue target organs from tissue damage, yet the mechanism remains to be fully resolved. Therefore, we explored the effect of MitoT on lymphoid cells. Here, we describe dose-dependent MitoT from mitochondria-labeled MSCs mainly to CD4+ T cells, rather than CD8+ T cells or CD19+ B cells. Artificial transfer of isolated MSC-derived mitochondria increases the expression of mRNA transcripts involved in T-cell activation and T regulatory cell differentiation including FOXP3, IL2RA, CTLA4, and TGFß1, leading to an increase in a highly suppressive CD25+ FoxP3+ population. In a GVHD mouse model, transplantation of MitoT-induced human T cells leads to significant improvement in survival and reduction in tissue damage and organ T CD4+ , CD8+ , and IFN-γ+ expressing cell infiltration. These findings point to a unique CD4+ T-cell reprogramming mechanism with pre-clinical proof-of-concept data that pave the way for the exploration of organelle-based therapies in immune diseases.

The FGF2-induced tanycyte proliferation involves a connexin 43 hemichannel/purinergic-dependent pathway.

In the adult hypothalamus, the neuronal precursor role is attributed to the radial glia-like cells that line the third-ventricle (3V) wall called tanycytes. Under nutritional cues, including hypercaloric diets, tanycytes proliferate and differentiate into mature neurons that moderate body weight, suggesting that hypothalamic neurogenesis is an adaptive mechanism in response to metabolic changes. Previous studies have shown that the tanycyte glucosensing mechanism depends on connexin-43 hemichannels (Cx43 HCs), purine release, and increased intracellular free calcium ion concentration [(Ca2+ )i ] mediated by purinergic P2Y receptors. Since, Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2) causes similar purinergic events in other cell types, we hypothesize that this pathway can be also activated by FGF2 in tanycytes to promote their proliferation. Here, we used bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation to evaluate if FGF2-induced tanycyte cell division is sensitive to Cx43 HC inhibition in vitro and in vivo. Immunocytochemical analyses showed that cultured tanycytes maintain the expression of in situ markers. After FGF2 exposure, tanycytic Cx43 HCs opened, enabling release of ATP to the extracellular milieu. Moreover, application of external ATP was enough to induce their cell division, which could be suppressed by Cx43 HC or P2Y1-receptor inhibitors. Similarly, in vivo experiments performed on rats by continuous infusion of FGF2 and a Cx43 HC inhibitor into the 3V, demonstrated that FGF2-induced ß-tanycyte proliferation is sensitive to Cx43 HC blockade. Thus, FGF2 induced Cx43 HC opening, triggered purinergic signaling, and increased ß-tanycytes proliferation, highlighting some of the molecular mechanisms involved in the cell division response of tanycyte. This article has an Editorial Highlight see https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15218.

HIF1α-dependent metabolic reprogramming governs mesenchymal stem/stromal cell immunoregulatory functions.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 α (HIF1α), a regulator of metabolic change, is required for the survival and differentiation potential of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC). Its role in MSC immunoregulatory activity, however, has not been completely elucidated. In the present study, we evaluate the role of HIF1α on MSC immunosuppressive potential. We show that HIF1α silencing in MSC decreases their inhibitory potential on Th1 and Th17 cell generation and limits their capacity to generate regulatory T cells. This reduced immunosuppressive potential of MSC is associated with a metabolic switch from glycolysis to OXPHOS and a reduced capacity to express or produce some immunosuppressive mediators including Intercellular Adhesion Molecule (ICAM), IL-6, and nitric oxide (NO). Moreover, using the Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity murine model (DTH), we confirm, in vivo, the critical role of HIF1α on MSC immunosuppressive effect. Indeed, we show that HIF1α silencing impairs MSC capacity to reduce inflammation and inhibit the generation of pro-inflammatory T cells. This study reveals the pivotal role of HIF1α on MSC immunosuppressive activity through the regulation of their metabolic status and identifies HIF1α as a novel mediator of MSC immunotherapeutic potential.

Glial hypothalamic inhibition of GLUT2 expression alters satiety, impacting eating behavior.

Glucose is a key modulator of feeding behavior. By acting in peripheral tissues and in the central nervous system, it directly controls the secretion of hormones and neuropeptides and modulates the activity of the autonomic nervous system. GLUT2 is required for several glucoregulatory responses in the brain, including feeding behavior, and is localized in the hypothalamus and brainstem, which are the main centers that control this behavior. In the hypothalamus, GLUT2 has been detected in glial cells, known as tanycytes, which line the basal walls of the third ventricle (3V). This study aimed to clarify the role of GLUT2 expression in tanycytes in feeding behavior using 3V injections of an adenovirus encoding a shRNA against GLUT2 and the reporter EGFP (Ad-shGLUT2). Efficient in vivo GLUT2 knockdown in rat hypothalamic tissue was demonstrated by qPCR and Western blot analyses. Specificity of cell transduction in the hypothalamus and brainstem was evaluated by EGFP-fluorescence and immunohistochemistry, which showed EGFP expression specifically in ependymal cells, including tanycytes. The altered mRNA levels of both orexigenic and anorexigenic neuropeptides suggested a loss of response to increased glucose in the 3V. Feeding behavior analysis in the fasting-feeding transition revealed that GLUT2-knockdown rats had increased food intake and body weight, suggesting an inhibitory effect on satiety. Taken together, suppression of GLUT2 expression in tanycytes disrupted the hypothalamic glucosensing mechanism, which altered the feeding behavior.

The role of tanycytes in hypothalamic glucosensing.

Tanycytes are elongated hypothalamic glial cells that cover the basal walls of the third ventricle; their apical regions contact the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and their processes reach hypothalamic neuronal nuclei that control the energy status of an organism. These nuclei maintain the balance between energy expenditure and intake, integrating several peripheral signals and triggering cellular responses that modify the feeding behaviour and peripheral glucose homeostasis. One of the most important and well-studied signals that control this process is glucose; however, the mechanism by which this molecule is sensed remains unknown. We along with others have proposed that tanycytes play a key role in this process, transducing changes in CSF glucose concentration to the neurons that control energy status. Recent studies have demonstrated the expression and function of monocarboxylate transporters and canonical pancreatic ß cell glucose sensing molecules, including glucose transporter 2 and glucokinase, in tanycytes. These and other data, which will be discussed in this review, suggest that hypothalamic glucosensing is mediated through a metabolic interaction between tanycytes and neurons through lactate. This article will summarize the recent evidence that supports the importance of tanycytes in hypothalamic glucosensing, and discuss the possible mechanisms involved in this process. Finally, it is important to highlight that a detailed analysis of this mechanism could represent an opportunity to understand the evolution of associated pathologies, including diabetes and obesity, and identify new candidates for therapeutic intervention.

Current Research on Molecular Biomarkers for Colorectal Cancer in Stool Samples.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most diagnosed cancers worldwide, with a high incidence and mortality rate when diagnosed late. Currently, the methods used in healthcare to diagnose CRC are the fecal occult blood test, flexible sigmoidoscopy, and colonoscopy. However, the lack of sensitivity and specificity and low population adherence are driving the need to implement other technologies that can identify biomarkers that not only help with early CRC detection but allow for the selection of more personalized treatment options. In this regard, the implementation of omics technologies, which can screen large pools of biological molecules, coupled with molecular validation, stands out as a promising tool for the discovery of new biomarkers from biopsied tissues or body fluids. This review delves into the current state of the art in the identification of novel CRC biomarkers that can distinguish cancerous tissue, specifically from fecal samples, as this could be the least invasive approach.

Lactate: an alternative pathway for the immunosuppressive properties of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells.

BACKGROUND: The metabolic reprogramming of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC) favoring glycolysis has recently emerged as a new approach to improve their immunotherapeutic abilities. This strategy is associated with greater lactate release, and interestingly, recent studies have proposed lactate as a functional suppressive molecule, changing the old paradigm of lactate as a waste product. Therefore, we evaluated the role of lactate as an alternative mediator of MSC immunosuppressive properties and its contribution to the enhanced immunoregulatory activity of glycolytic MSCs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Murine CD4+ T cells from C57BL/6 male mice were differentiated into proinflammatory Th1 or Th17 cells and cultured with either L-lactate, MSCs pretreated or not with the glycolytic inductor, oligomycin, and MSCs pretreated or not with a chemical inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), galloflavin or LDH siRNA to prevent lactate production. Additionally, we validated our results using human umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UC-MSCs) in a murine model of delayed type 1 hypersensitivity (DTH). RESULTS: Our results showed that 50 mM of exogenous L-lactate inhibited the proliferation rate and phenotype of CD4+ T cell-derived Th1 or Th17 by 40% and 60%, respectively. Moreover, the suppressive activity of both glycolytic and basal MSCs was impaired when LDH activity was reduced. Likewise, in the DTH inflammation model, lactate production was required for MSC anti-inflammatory activity. This lactate dependent-immunosuppressive mechanism was confirmed in UC-MSCs through the inhibition of LDH, which significantly decreased their capacity to control proliferation of activated CD4+ and CD8+ human T cells by 30%. CONCLUSION: These findings identify a new MSC immunosuppressive pathway that is independent of the classical suppressive mechanism and demonstrated that the enhanced suppressive and therapeutic abilities of glycolytic MSCs depend at least in part on lactate production.

Neuroprotective and Neurotoxic Effects of Glial-Derived Exosomes.

Exosomes derived from glial cells such as astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes can modulate cell communication in the brain and exert protective or neurotoxic effects on neurons, depending on the environmental context upon their release. Their isolation, characterization, and analysis under different conditions in vitro, in animal models and samples derived from patients has allowed to define the participation of other molecular mechanisms behind neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration spreading, and to propose their use as a potential diagnostic tool. Moreover, the discovery of specific molecular cargos, such as cytokines, membrane-bound and soluble proteins (neurotrophic factors, growth factors, misfolded proteins), miRNA and long-non-coding RNA, that are enriched in glial-derived exosomes with neuroprotective or damaging effects, or their inhibitors can now be tested as therapeutic tools. In this review we summarize the state of the art on how exosomes secretion by glia can affect neurons and other glia from the central nervous system in the context of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation, but also, on how specific stress stimuli and pathological conditions can change the levels of exosome secretion and their properties.

A Short-Term Sucrose Diet Impacts Cell Proliferation of Neural Precursors in the Adult Hypothalamus.

Radial glia-like cells in the hypothalamus and dorsal vagal complex are neural precursors (NPs) located near subventricular organs: median eminence and area postrema, respectively. Their strategic position can detect blood-borne nutrients, hormones, and mitogenic signals. Hypothalamic NPs increase their proliferation with a mechanism that involves hemichannel (HC) activity. NPs can originate new neurons in response to a short-term high-fat diet as a compensatory mechanism. The effects of high carbohydrate Western diets on adult neurogenesis are unknown. Although sugars are usually consumed as sucrose, more free fructose is now incorporated into food items. Here, we studied the proliferation of both types of NPs in Sprague Dawley rats exposed to a short-term high sucrose diet (HSD) and a control diet. In tanycyte cultures, we evaluated the effects of glucose and fructose and a mix of both hexoses on HC activity. In rats fed an HSD, we observed an increase in the proliferative state of both precursors. Glucose, either in the presence or absence of fructose, but not fructose alone, induced in vitro HC activity. These results should broaden the understanding of the nutrient monitoring capacity of NPs in reacting to changes in feeding behavior, specifically to high sugar western diets.

GKRP-dependent modulation of feeding behavior by tanycyte-released monocarboxylates.

Objectives: Glucokinase Regulatory Protein (GKRP) is the only known endogenous modulator of glucokinase (GK) localization and activity to date, and both proteins are localized in tanycytes, radial glia-like cells involved in metabolic and endocrine functions in the hypothalamus. However, the role of tanycytic GKRP and its impact on the regulation of feeding behavior has not been investigated. Here, we hypothesize that GKRP regulates feeding behavior by modulating tanycyte-neuron metabolic communication in the arcuate nucleus. Methods: We used primary cultures of tanycytes to evaluate the production of lactate and ß-hydroxybutyrate (ßHB). Similarly, we examined the electrophysiological responses to these metabolites in pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons in hypothalamic slices. To evaluate the role of GKRP in feeding behavior, we generated tanycyte-selective GKRP-overexpressing and GKRP-knock down mice (GKRPt-OE and GKRPt-KD respectively) using adenovirus-mediated transduction. Results: We demonstrated that lactate release induced by glucose uptake is favored in GKRP-KD tanycytes. Conversely, tanycytes overexpressing GKRP showed an increase in ßHB efflux induced by low glucose concentration. In line with these findings, the excitability of POMC neurons was enhanced by lactate and decreased in the presence of ßHB. In GKRPt-OE rats, we found an increase in post-fasting food avidity, whereas GKRPt-KD caused a significant decrease in feeding and body weight, which is reverted when MCT1 is silenced. Conclusion: Our study highlights the role of tanycytic GKRP in metabolic regulation and positions this regulator of GK as a therapeutic target for boosting satiety in patients with obesity problems.

The Macrophage Response Is Driven by Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Mediated Metabolic Reprogramming.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent adult stromal cells widely studied for their regenerative and immunomodulatory properties. They are capable of modulating macrophage plasticity depending on various microenvironmental signals. Current studies have shown that metabolic changes can also affect macrophage fate and function. Indeed, changes in the environment prompt phenotype change. Therefore, in this review, we will discuss how MSCs orchestrate macrophage's metabolic plasticity and the impact on their function. An improved understanding of the crosstalk between macrophages and MSCs will improve our knowledge of MSC's therapeutic potential in the context of inflammatory diseases, cancer, and tissue repair processes in which macrophages are pivotal.

Role of microRNA Shuttled in Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived From Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells for Osteoarticular Disease Treatment.

Osteoarticular diseases (OD), such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA) are chronic autoimmune/inflammatory and age-related diseases that affect the joints and other organs for which the current therapies are not effective. Cell therapy using mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) is an alternative treatment due to their immunomodulatory and tissue differentiation capacity. Several experimental studies in numerous diseases have demonstrated the MSCs' therapeutic effects. However, MSCs have shown heterogeneity, instability of stemness and differentiation capacities, limited homing ability, and various adverse responses such as abnormal differentiation and tumor formation. Recently, acellular therapy based on MSC secreted factors has raised the attention of several studies. It has been shown that molecules embedded in extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from MSCs, particularly those from the small fraction enriched in exosomes (sEVs), effectively mimic their impact in target cells. The biological effects of sEVs critically depend on their cargo, where sEVs-embedded microRNAs (miRNAs) are particularly relevant due to their crucial role in gene expression regulation. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the effect of sEVs derived from MSCs and their miRNA cargo on target cells associated with the pathology of RA and OA and their potential therapeutic impact.

The ATP synthase inhibition induces an AMPK-dependent glycolytic switch of mesenchymal stem cells that enhances their immunotherapeutic potential.

Objectives: Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells (MSC) are promising therapeutic tools for inflammatory diseases due to their potent immunoregulatory capacities. Their suppressive activity mainly depends on inflammatory cues that have been recently associated with changes in MSC bioenergetic status towards a glycolytic metabolism. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this metabolic reprogramming and its impact on MSC therapeutic properties have not been investigated. Methods: Human and murine-derived MSC were metabolically reprogramed using pro-inflammatory cytokines, an inhibitor of ATP synthase (oligomycin), or 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG). The immunosuppressive activity of these cells was tested in vitro using co-culture experiments with pro-inflammatory T cells and in vivo with the Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) and the Graph versus Host Disease (GVHD) murine models. Results: We found that the oligomycin-mediated pro-glycolytic switch of MSC significantly enhanced their immunosuppressive properties in vitro. Conversely, glycolysis inhibition using 2DG significantly reduced MSC immunoregulatory effects. Moreover, in vivo, MSC glycolytic reprogramming significantly increased their therapeutic benefit in the DTH and GVHD mouse models. Finally, we demonstrated that the MSC glycolytic switch effect partly depends on the activation of the AMPK signaling pathway. Conclusion: Altogether, our findings show that AMPK-dependent glycolytic reprogramming of MSC using an ATP synthase inhibitor contributes to their immunosuppressive and therapeutic functions, and suggest that pro-glycolytic drugs might be used to improve MSC-based therapy.

Mechanisms behind the Immunoregulatory Dialogue between Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Th17 Cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit potent immunoregulatory abilities by interacting with cells of the adaptive and innate immune system. In vitro, MSCs inhibit the differentiation of T cells into T helper 17 (Th17) cells and repress their proliferation. In vivo, the administration of MSCs to treat various experimental inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and bowel disease showed promising therapeutic results. These therapeutic properties mediated by MSCs are associated with an attenuated immune response characterized by a reduced frequency of Th17 cells and the generation of regulatory T cells. In this manuscript, we review how MSC and Th17 cells interact, communicate, and exchange information through different ways such as cell-to-cell contact, secretion of soluble factors, and organelle transfer. Moreover, we discuss the consequences of this dynamic dialogue between MSC and Th17 well described by their phenotypic and functional plasticity.

Inhibition of Hypothalamic MCT4 and MCT1-MCT4 Expressions Affects Food Intake and Alters Orexigenic and Anorexigenic Neuropeptide Expressions.

Feeding behavior regulation is a complex process, which depends on the central integration of different signals, such as glucose, leptin, and ghrelin. Recent studies have shown that glial cells known as tanycytes that border the basal third ventricle (3V) detect glucose and then use glucose-derived signaling to inform energy status to arcuate nucleus (ARC) neurons to regulate feeding behavior. Monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) 1 and MCT4 are localized in the cellular processes of tanycytes, which could facilitate monocarboxylate release to orexigenic and anorexigenic neurons. We hypothesize that MCT1 and MCT4 inhibitions could alter the metabolic communication between tanycytes and ARC neurons, affecting feeding behavior. We have previously shown that MCT1 knockdown rats eat more and exhibit altered satiety parameters. Here, we generate MCT4 knockdown rats and MCT1-MCT4 double knockdown rats using adenovirus-mediated transduction of a shRNA into the 3V. Feeding behavior was evaluated in MCT4 and double knockdown animals, and neuropeptide expression in response to intracerebroventricular glucose administration was measured. MCT4 inhibition produced a decrease in food intake, contrary to double knockdown. MCT4 inhibition was accompanied by a decrease in eating rate and mean meal size and an increase in mean meal duration, parameters that are not changed in the double knockdown animals with exception of eating rate. Finally, we observed a loss in glucose regulation of orexigenic neuropeptides and abnormal expression of anorexigenic neuropeptides in response to fasting when these transporters are inhibited. Taken together, these results indicate that MCT1 and MCT4 expressions in tanycytes play a role in feeding behavior regulation.

Nutrient Sensing by Hypothalamic Tanycytes.

Nutritional signals have long been implicated in the control of cellular processes that take place in the hypothalamus. This includes food intake regulation and energy balance, inflammation, and most recently, neurogenesis. One of the main glial cells residing in the hypothalamus are tanycytes, radial glial-like cells, whose bodies are located in the lining of the third ventricle, with processes extending to the parenchyma and reaching neuronal nuclei. Their unique anatomical location makes them directly exposed to nutrients in the cerebrospinal fluid. Several research groups have shown that tanycytes can respond to nutritional signals by different mechanisms, such as calcium signaling, metabolic shift, and changes in proliferation/differentiation potential. Despite cumulative evidence showing tanycytes have the molecular components to participate in nutrient detection and response, there are no enough functional studies connecting tanycyte nutrient sensing with hypothalamic functions, nor that highlight the relevance of this process in physiological and pathological context. This review will summarize recent evidence that supports a nutrient sensor role for tanycytes in the hypothalamus, highlighting the need for more detailed analysis on the actual implications of tanycyte-nutrient sensing and how this process can be modulated, which might allow the discovery of new metabolic and signaling pathways as therapeutic targets, for the treatment of hypothalamic related diseases.

Glucose Increase DAGLα Levels in Tanycytes and Its Inhibition Alters Orexigenic and Anorexigenic Neuropeptides Expression in Response to Glucose.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is composed of a group of Gi-coupled protein receptors and enzymes, producing and degrading the endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (AEA). Endocannabinoid-mediated signaling modulates brain functions, such as pain, mood, memory, and feeding behavior. The activation of the ECS is associated with overeating and obesity; however, the expression of components of this system has been only partially studied in the hypothalamus, a critical region implicated in feeding behavior. Within this brain region, anorexigenic, and orexigenic neurons of the arcuate nucleus (ARC) are in close contact with tanycytes, glial radial-like cells that line the lateral walls and floor of the third ventricle (3V). The specific function of tanycytes and the effects of metabolic signals generated by them on adjacent neurons is starting to be elucidated. We have proposed that the ECS within tanycytes modulates ARC neurons, thus modifying food intake. Here, we evaluated the expression and the loss of function of the 2-AG-producing enzyme, diacylglycerol lipase-alpha (DAGLα). Using Western blot and immunohistochemistry analyses in basal hypothalamus sections of adult rats under several glycemic conditions, we confirm that DAGLα is strongly expressed at the basal hypothalamus in glial and neuronal cells, increasing further in response to greater extracellular glucose levels. Using a DAGLα-inhibiting adenovirus (shRNA), suppression of DAGLα expression in tanycytes altered the usual response to intracerebroventricular glucose in terms of neuropeptides produced by neurons of the ARC. Thus, these results strongly suggest that the tanycytes could generate 2-AG, which modulates the function of anorexigenic and orexigenic neurons.

Author Correction: Adenovirus-mediated suppression of hypothalamic glucokinase affects feeding behavior.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improve Rheumatoid Arthritis Progression by Controlling Memory T Cell Response.

In the last years, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based therapies have become an interesting therapeutic opportunity for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) due to their capacity to potently modulate the immune response. RA is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disorder with an incompletely understood etiology. However, it has been well described that peripheral tolerance defects and the subsequent abnormal infiltration and activation of diverse immune cells into the synovial membrane, are critical for RA development and progression. Moreover, the imbalance between the immune response of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cells, in particular between memory Th17 and memory regulatory T cells (Treg), respectively, is well admitted to be associated to RA immunopathogenesis. In this context, MSCs, which are able to alter the frequency and function of memory lymphocytes including Th17, follicular helper T (Tfh) cells and gamma delta (γδ) T cells while promoting Treg cell generation, have been proposed as a candidate of choice for RA cell therapy. Indeed, given the plasticity of memory CD4+ T cells, it is reasonable to think that MSCs will restore the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory memory T cells populations deregulated in RA leading to prompt their therapeutic function. In the present review, we will discuss the role of memory T cells implicated in RA pathogenesis and the beneficial effects exerted by MSCs on the phenotype and functions of these immune cells abnormally regulated in RA and how this regulation could impact RA progression.