Fatigue After Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a systematic review of published interventions for posttraumatic brain injury fatigue (PTBIF). METHODS: PubMed and OneSearch were systematically searched for PTBIF interventions published between January 1, 1989, and March 31, 2019. Search results were evaluated for inclusion based on an abstract and full-text review. Inclusion criteria were (1) an investigation of an intervention, (2) participant sample including individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI), (3) report of fatigue outcome data among individuals with TBI, and (4) articles available in English, Spanish, French, German, Afrikaans, or Dutch. A risk of bias assessment was conducted on all included publications. RESULTS: The search resulted in 2343 publications, with 37 meeting inclusion criteria for this review. Categories of PTBIF interventions were pharmacological ( n = 13), psychological ( n = 9), exercise-based ( n = 4), complementary alternative medicine ( n = 5), electrotherapeutic ( n = 3), and multimodal ( n = 3). Only methylphenidate, modafinil, and cognitive behavioral therapy interventions included multiple cohorts. Pharmacological and psychological interventions represented the groups with the lowest risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS: This review includes 37 studies, with 21 studies published after 2014. Methylphenidate and melatonin were the only pharmacological agents found to reduce fatigue in randomized controlled trials. Creatine given to children prospectively at onset of injury reduced fatigue at follow-up. Walking and water aerobics were effective exercise interventions in isolated randomized controlled studies. One multimodal study of children after concussion was more effective at reducing fatigue and postconcussion symptoms than community standard of care. Other interventions had equivocal results. Overall, more work remains to understand and develop treatments for PTBIF.

A randomised control trial of walking to ameliorate brain injury fatigue: a NIDRR TBI model system centre-based study.

Fatigue is one of the most commonly reported sequelae after traumatic brain injury (TBI). This study evaluated the impact of a graduated physical activity programme on fatigue after TBI. Using a prospective randomised single-blind crossover design, 123 individuals with TBI, over the age of 18, were enrolled. Interventions included a home-based walking programme utilising a pedometer to track daily number of steps at increasing increments accompanied by tapered coaching calls over a 12-week period. Nutritional counselling with the same schedule of coaching calls served as the control condition. Main outcome measures included: the Global Fatigue Index (GFI), the Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) Fatigue Scale Overall Severity Index Score, and the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (MFI). Step counts improved over time regardless of group assignment. The walking intervention led to a decrease in GFI, BNI Total, and MFI General scores. Participants reported less fatigue at the end of the active part of the intervention (24 weeks) and after a wash out period (36 weeks) as measured by the BNI Overall. The study suggests that walking can be used as an efficient and cost-effective tool to improve fatigue in persons who have sustained a TBI.

TBI-QOL: Development and Calibration of Item Banks to Measure Patient Reported Outcomes Following Traumatic Brain Injury.

OBJECTIVE: To use a patient-centered approach or participatory action research design combined with advanced psychometrics to develop a comprehensive patient-reported outcomes (PRO) measurement system specifically for individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). This TBI Quality-of-Life (TBI-QOL) measurement system expands the work of other large PRO measurement initiatives, that is, the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System and the Neurology Quality-of-Life measurement initiative. SETTING: Five TBI Model Systems centers across the United States. PARTICIPANTS: Adults with TBI. DESIGN: Classical and modern test development methodologies were used. Qualitative input was obtained from individuals with TBI, TBI clinicians, and caregivers of individuals with TBI through multiple methods, including focus groups, individual interviews, patient consultation, and cognitive debriefing interviews. Item pools were field tested in a large multisite sample (n = 675) and calibrated using item response theory methods. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Twenty-two TBI-QOL item banks/scales. RESULTS: The TBI-QOL consists of 20 independent calibrated item banks and 2 uncalibrated scales that measure physical, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of health-related quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: The TBI-QOL measurement system has potential as a common data element in TBI research and to enhance collection of health-related quality-of-life and PRO data in rehabilitation research and clinical settings.

A home-based walking study to ameliorate perceived stress and depressive symptoms in people with a traumatic brain injury.

UNLABELLED: Abstract Objective: To determine whether a 12-week home-based walking programme can decrease perceived stress and depressive symptoms in persons with a traumatic brain injury (TBI). SETTING: Community- and home-based. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-nine participants with a TBI. DESIGN: Comparative effectiveness cross-over design with random assignment to treatment sequence and blinded post-hoc assessment of outcome where participants completed a 12-week walking intervention and a nutrition education module. The walking intervention utilized pedometers to track the amount of steps each participant walked daily. With the assistance of an assigned coach, weekly goals were given with the intent of increasing the amount of walking that the participant was initially completing. The nutrition control group was created to offset the impact of the coaching calls. MAIN MEASURES: Measurement of perceived stress and depressive symptoms was completed through the use of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D). These measures were collected at three time points: baseline and following each 12-week intervention. RESULTS: RESULTS indicated that both perceived stress and depression symptoms significantly improved following the walking intervention. CONCLUSIONS: While limitations existed with the study, it is evident that walking can be used as an efficient and cost-effective tool to manage perceived stress and depressive symptoms in persons who have sustained a TBI.

Impact of late post-traumatic seizures on physical health and functioning for individuals with brain injury within the community.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To better characterize, describe and highlight issues that individuals with TBI and active LPTS may face in their daily lives. DESIGN: Prospective multi-centre mixed method qualitative and quantitative interview. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-five individuals, 5-13 years post-injury, who had reported having LPTS and TBI. MEASURES: Disability Rating Scale (DRS); Supervision Rating Scale (SRS); Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOS-E); Perceived Stress Scale (PSS); Craig Handicap Assessment Reporting Technique-Short Form (CHART-SF) sub-scales: Physical Independence, Cognitive Independence, Mobility, Occupation, Social Integration; and Craig Hospital Inventory of Environmental Factors (CHIEF); and qualitative interview questions pertaining to management of the seizure disorder and its effect on the individual's health, function, community integration and participation. RESULTS: Data are presented regarding seizure activity and management; return to driving post-seizure; coping and participation; and standardized outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with TBI and LPTS are at a double-barrelled disadvantage regarding ongoing physical, cognitive, psychosocial and reintegration issues following brain injury and epilepsy. Clearer clinical guidelines and treatment strategies need to be developed to help ameliorate these ongoing issues. Additional research is needed to identify what the rehabilitation community can do to continue to facilitate people living safely and independently.

Traumatic brain injury with and without late posttraumatic seizures: what are the impacts in the post-acute phase: a NIDRR Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare and contrast the levels of impairment, disability, and community participation of individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) with or without late posttraumatic seizures (LPTS). DESIGN: Prospective survey study. SETTING: Community. PARTICIPANTS: Two groups of 91 individuals with TBI, with and without LPTS, were enrolled in the TBI Model Systems National Database between 1989 and 2002 and interviewed at years 1, 2, and 5 postinjury. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic, injury severity, productivity, and psychosocial outcomes. RESULTS: The majority of the demographic and productivity outcomes up to 5 years postinjury were similar between individuals in the LPTS and non-LPTS groups. Both the LPTS and non-LPTS groups showed an increasing percentage of individuals who began to live alone after the first year postinjury and a decreasing percentage of individuals who were living with family members at 5 years postinjury compared with the first year post-TBI. A higher percentage of individuals in the LPTS group reported using more dependent forms of transportation such as riding with others or using public transportation. Individuals in the LPTS group had higher Disability Rating Scale scores at all time points, denoting greater functional disability, than individuals in the non-LPTS group, despite the 2 groups having similar Disability Rating Scale scores at discharge from rehabilitation. Satisfaction With Life Scale scores showed no changes over time but were significantly different between both groups at all time points, with individuals in the LPTS group reporting lower Satisfaction With Life Scale score than individuals in the non-LPTS group. CONCLUSIONS: It does appear that the development of LPTS following a TBI is associated with poorer functional and psychosocial outcomes in the first 5 years after injury. It remains to be determined whether there are other factors that also may account for these differences and that may be amenable to intervention.

Mortality after surviving traumatic brain injury: risks based on age groups.

OBJECTIVE: To assess mortality, life expectancy, risk factors, and causes of death by age groups among persons who received inpatient traumatic brain injury (TBI) rehabilitation. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: The TBI Model Systems. PARTICIPANTS: 8573 individuals injured between 1988 and 2009, with survival status per December 31, 2009, determined. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Standardized mortality ratio, life expectancy, and cause of death. RESULTS: Moderate-severe TBI increases risk of mortality compared with the general population in all age groups, with the exception of those 85 years or older at the time of injury. Teenagers to middle-aged adults are at particular risk. Risk factors for death varied by age group and included gender, marital and employment status, year and cause of injury, and level of disability. External causes of death predominate in younger groups. For the youngest male participants in the sample, longevity was reduced up to 16 years. CONCLUSION: Risk factors and causes of death varied considerably by age group for individuals with moderate-severe TBI who were receiving acute care rehabilitation. Moderate-severe TBI is a chronic health condition.

Ageing and traumatic brain injury: age, decline in function and level of assistance over the first 10 years post-injury.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the course of changes in function and need for assistance in the chronic stages of TBI; and to identify factors associated with these changes. DESIGN: Longitudinal review of participants in the TBI Model Systems Database, who have been prospectively followed for at least 10 years. PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred and seventy-eight individuals with TBI that occurred between 25 October 1988 and 31 December 1998, enrolled in the TBI Model Systems National Database, eligible for 10-year follow-up when data was extracted, with completed data collection at either year 1 or 2 and year 10. RESULTS: Significant between age group differences were found for FIM toileting, bladder, bowel, toilet transfers, locomotion, problem-solving and memory; SRS; DRS level of functioning, employability and total; and GOS. With regard to functional independence, there were significant differences by age category for all FIM components except memory. Significant differences were noted for age category and level of dependence as measured by the DRS (LOF 1.5-5) and GOS (GOS 2-4). Supervision needs significantly increased as a function of age. Significant differences were found for diminished function over time. Significant differences were noted for residence at 10 years post-injury. CONCLUSIONS: For those individuals that survive to 10 years post-TBI, age is a major factor in requiring assistance of another person for supervision as well as assistance in basic self-care, continence and mobility.

Prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism during rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury: a multicenter observational study.

BACKGROUND: Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity after traumatic brain injury (TBI). There is no consensus regarding appropriate screening, prophylaxis, or treatment during acute rehabilitation. METHODS: This prospective observational study evaluated prophylactic anticoagulation during rehabilitation in patients with TBI aged 16 years or older admitted to 12 TBI Model Systems rehabilitation centers (July 2004-December 2007). After propensity score stratification within center, the odds ratio associated with incidence of symptomatic DVT or pulmonary embolism (PE) for patients who did and did not receive prophylactic anticoagulation was estimated using conditional logistic regression in patients who were not screened for DVT on rehabilitation admission or who screened negative; the analysis was repeated in these two subgroups. RESULTS: Patients with identified DVTs at rehabilitation admission (n = 266) were excluded, leaving 1,897 patients: 1,002 screened negative, 895 unscreened; 932 received prophylactic anticoagulation, and 965 did not. Symptomatic DVT/PE was detected in 32 patients (15 of 932 [1.6%] with prophylaxis, 17 of 965 [1.8%] without). After propensity score adjustment, the odds ratio (95% confidence interval) for symptomatic DVT/PE with prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis was 0.80 (0.33-1.94) in the full analytic population and 0.46 (0.12-1.84) in the screened-negative subgroup. The only probable venous thromboembolism-related death occurred in the prophylactic anticoagulation group. Fewer new/expanded intracranial hemorrhages occurred among patients who received prophylactic anticoagulation. CONCLUSIONS: Prophylactic anticoagulation during rehabilitation seemed safe for TBI patients whose physicians deemed it appropriate, but did not conclusively reduce venous thromboembolism. Given the number of DVTs present before rehabilitation, screening and prophylaxis during acute care may be more important.

Fatigue after traumatic brain injury: Association with neuroendocrine, sleep, depression and other factors.

OBJECTIVE: Define associations between post-traumatic brain injury (TBI) fatigue and abnormalities in neuroendocrine axes, sleep, mood, cognition and physical functioning. DESIGN: Survey. SETTING: Large community hospital-based rehabilitation centre. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of 119 individuals at least 1 year post-TBI. OUTCOME MEASURES: Multidimensional Assessment of Fatigue (MAF); Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS); neuroendocrine assessments-growth hormone (GH) reserve, thyroid, cortisol and testosterone levels; visual analogue pain rating; Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; Beck Depression Inventory-II; Disability Rating Scale; Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique; Neurobehavioural Functioning Inventory. RESULTS: Fifty-three per cent reported fatigue on the MAF and one-third on the FSS; 65% were found to have moderate/severe GH deficiency; 64% had adrenal insufficiency (low fasting cortisol); 12% had central hypothyroidism; and 15% of men had testosterone deficiency. Pituitary dysfunction did not correlate with fatigue or other symptoms. Predictors of MAF total scores were female gender, depression, pain and self-assessed memory deficits. Predictors of FSS scores were depression, self-assessed motor deficits and anti-depressant usage. CONCLUSIONS: Robust correlates of fatigue were gender, depression, pain and memory and motor dysfunction. Investigation of post-TBI fatigue should include screening for depression, pain and sleep disturbance. There was no correlation between pituitary dysfunction and fatigue; however, the relatively high prevalence of hypothyroidism and adrenal dysfunction suggests screening for these hormone deficiencies.

The impact of hypopituitarism on function and performance in subjects with recent history of traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To correlate deficient pituitary function with life satisfaction and functional performance in subjects with a recent history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). RESEARCH DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Eighteen subjects with TBI and 16 subjects with SAH underwent pituitary hormonal and functional assessments 5-12 months following the event. Adrenal reserve was assessed with a 1 mcg cosyntropin stimulation test and growth hormone deficiency (GHD) was diagnosed by insufficient GH response to GHRH-Arginine stimulation. Assessments of life satisfaction and performance-function included the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique (CHART) and the Mayo Portland Adaptability Inventory-4 (MPAI-4). RESULTS: Hypopituitarism was present in 20 (58.8%) subjects, including 50% with adrenal insufficiency. Hypothyroidism correlated with worse performance on SWLS and CHART measures. GHD was associated with poorer performance on CHART and MPAI-4 scale. CONCLUSIONS: In this series of subjects with history of TBI and SAH, hypothyroidism and GHD were associated with diminished life satisfaction and performance-function on multiple assessments. Further studies are necessary to determine the appropriate testing of adrenal reserve in this population and to determine the benefit of pituitary hormone replacement therapy on function following brain injury.

Clinical elements that predict outcome after traumatic brain injury: a prospective multicenter recursive partitioning (decision-tree) analysis.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often presents clinicians with a complex combination of clinical elements that can confound treatment and make outcome prediction challenging. Predictive models have commonly used acute physiological variables and gross clinical measures to predict mortality and basic outcome endpoints. The primary goal of this study was to consider all clinical elements available concerning a survivor of TBI admitted for inpatient rehabilitation, and identify those factors that predict disability, need for supervision, and productive activity one year after injury. The Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS) database was used for decision tree analysis using recursive partitioning (n = 3463). Outcome measures included the Functional Independence Measure(), the Disability Rating Scale, the Supervision Rating Scale, and a measure of productive activity. Predictor variables included all physical examination elements, measures of injury severity (initial Glasgow Coma Scale score, duration of post-traumatic amnesia [PTA], length of coma, CT scan pathology), gender, age, and years of education. The duration of PTA, age, and most elements of the physical examination were predictive of early disability. The duration of PTA alone was selected to predict late disability and independent living. The duration of PTA, age, sitting balance, and limb strength were selected to predict productive activity at 1 year. The duration of PTA was the best predictor of outcome selected in this model for all endpoints and elements of the physical examination provided additional predictive value. Valid and reliable measures of PTA and physical impairment after TBI are important for accurate outcome prediction.

Mortality in late post-traumatic seizures.

The objective of this study was to examine the mortality rates in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) who were classified as having experienced late post-traumatic seizures (LPTS) in the first 2 years post-TBI compared to those who were seizure-free (non-LPTS). Participants were a pooled sample (n = 508) from two studies which enrolled individuals with TBI who were injured between March 31, 1992 and December 20, 1999. The first sample was made up of individuals enrolled in a study of risk factors for LPTS development; the second sample was composed of individuals enrolled in the TBI National Database from a single rehabilitation center. Seventy-one (14%) participants had LPTS, of which 27% had died at 8-15 years post-injury, as compared to 10% of non-LPTS participants. Individuals with LPTS died at a younger age (54.1 versus 67.7 years; p = 0.01), but there were no statistically significant differences in either time from date of injury to death or highest GCS score in the first 24 h. Causes of death were variable and not specifically related to epilepsy. Of those with LPTS, risk factors for death include advanced age at time of injury and presence of subdural hematoma. The higher mortality rate and death at younger age with variable causes in TBI individuals with LPTS warrant close medical evaluation and monitoring of these individuals, particularly accessibility and compliance with ongoing general medical care, and education of primary care colleagues of the unique needs of this at-risk population.

The experience of fatigue in the first 2 years after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury: a preliminary report.

Fatigue is a well-recognized issue for individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). This prospective study examined the rate and types of fatigue that are experienced by a cohort of individuals with TBI within the first 2 years, using a multidimensional fatigue scale. The impact of factors such as demographics, injury severity indices, and concomitant psychosocial variables was also examined. Using 2 measures of overall fatigue, 16%-32% at Year 1 and 21%-34% at Year 2 reported significant levels of fatigue. Fatigue did not appear to change between 1 and 2 years post-TBI. Sleep quality was the most prevalent concomitant disturbance followed by depression and pain.

Patterns of fatigue and its correlates over the first 2 years after traumatic brain injury.

This study used a prospective longitudinal design to quantify fatigue and associated factors during the first 2 years after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Fifty-one individuals were assessed at 3 time points: within the first 6, 12, and 18-24 months after TBI. Self-reported fatigue improved during the first year, as did pain, sleep quality, cognitive independence, and involvement in productive activity. Further changes up to 2 years after TBI were not observed. The subset of individuals who reported significant increases in fatigue over the first 2 years demonstrated poorer outcomes in cognition, motor symptoms, and general functioning than those with decreased or stable fatigue.

Fatigue after TBI: association with neuroendocrine abnormalities.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the association between neuroendocrine findings and fatigue after traumatic brain injury (TBI) Research design: Prospective, observational. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Sixty-four individuals at least 1 year post-TBI underwent neuroendocrine testing including thyroid, adrenal, gonadal axes and growth hormone (GH) after glucagon stimulation with assessment of fatigue using the Global Fatigue Index (GFI) and the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS). MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: GFI and FSS scores were significantly higher within this sample compared to published control data. At least one pituitary axis was abnormal in 90% of participants. Higher GH levels were significantly associated with higher FSS scores. There was a noted trend between lower basal cortisol and higher scores on both the FSS and GFI. CONCLUSIONS: The association between higher GH levels and greater fatigue contradicted the prevailing hypothesis that post-acute TBI fatigue is associated with GH deficiency. The association between lower basal cortisol and greater fatigue was in the expected direction. While no other trends were noted, the fatigue derived from neuroendocrine abnormalities alone may be masked by fatigue induced by other factors commonly experienced following TBI. Given the high prevalence of pituitary abnormalities, screening for hypopituitarism after TBI is a reasonable recommendation. The contribution of GH deficiency to diminished quality of life post-TBI remains unclear.

Impairment at rehabilitation admission and 1 year after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective multi-centre analysis.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: Describe physical impairment at rehabilitation admission and 1-year after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. RESEARCH DESIGN: Prospective longitudinal multi-centre descriptive analysis. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Physical examination variables were analysed for all subjects in the Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems database from 1988-2002 that had data both at rehabilitation admission and at 1 year. MAIN RESULTS: Standing balance was more commonly and severely impaired at admission (82% of sample impaired) and 1 year (24% impaired) compared to other examination variables. Sitting balance was impaired in 52% of the sample at admission, largely resolving (5% abnormal) by 1 year. The profile of impaired strength, coordination and tone was similar among the four limbs. Impaired limb strength was most common and persistent over the study period compared to coordination and tone, but strength was normal in greater than 80% of subjects at 1 year. Dysphagia present at admission (40% of sample) largely resolved by 1 year (0.4% unable to swallow). Impairment in audition and vision was uncommon and changed little during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Acute impairment was present in all variables. A minority of the sample had detectable impairment at 1 year. Standing balance was most severely and persistently impaired.

A follow-up study of older adults with traumatic brain injury: taking into account decreasing length of stay.

OBJECTIVE: To examine age-related differences in rehabilitation outcomes following traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN: Retrospective collaborative study. SETTING: Patients received acute neurotrauma and inpatient rehabilitation services at 1 of the 17 National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research-designated Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS) centers. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of 273 older patients (> or =55y) admitted for TBI were taken from the TBIMS National Database. Older patients were matched with subjects 44 years of age or younger, based on severity of injury (Glasgow Coma Scale score, length of coma, intracranial pressure elevations). Due to decreasing length of stay (LOS), only patients admitted from 1996 through 2002 were included. INTERVENTION: Inpatient interdisciplinary brain injury rehabilitation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Acute care LOS, inpatient rehabilitation LOS, admission and discharge FIM instrument and Disability Rating Scale (DRS) scores, FIM and DRS efficiency, acute and rehabilitative charges, and discharge disposition. RESULTS: One-way analyses of variance demonstrated a statistically significant difference between older and younger patients with respect to LOS in rehabilitation but not for acute care. Total rehabilitative charges, and admission and discharge DRS and FIM scores also showed statistically significant differences between groups. Older patients progressed with significantly less efficiency on both the DRS and FIM scales. Significantly more charges were generated per unit for older patients to improve on the DRS scale, but not the FIM scale. Using chi-square analysis, a statistically significant difference in rate of discharge to home was identified between older (80.5%) and younger (94.4%) patients. CONCLUSIONS: Results in this study are similar to those in earlier studies with smaller sample sizes. Major differences observed include significantly slower and more costly progress in inpatient rehabilitation for older patients with TBI, as well as a significantly lower rate of discharge to community for older patients. However, even with decreasing LOS in both settings, community discharge rate is still encouraging for older patients with TBI.

Medical and social issues related to posttraumatic seizures in persons with traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of late posttraumatic seizures (LPTS) in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) ranges anywhere from 5% to 18.9% in civilian populations up to 32% to 50% in military personnel. OBJECTIVE: This article reviews the current knowledge about the incidence and prevalence of LPTS following a TBI, the risk factors for developing LPTS, and the options available for preventing the development of LPTS. METHODS: The psychosocial ramifications of LPTS following a TBI have not been well explored. As a result, the psychosocial findings from the current literature on epilepsy will be reviewed with the hope that the need for future TBI outcomes research to investigate the impact of LPTS following a TBI or, at least, to include LPTS as a potential contributing factor will be recognized.