Distinct biogeographic processes and areas of endemism contributed differentially to Plasmodium and Parahaemoproteus community assembly on Marajó Island.

Amazonia is the primary source of haemosporidian diversity for South American biomes. Yet, our understanding of the contribution of each area of endemism and the biogeographical processes that generated such diversity in this group of vector transmitted parasites remains incomplete. For example, a recently formed fluvial island in the Amazon delta - Marajó Island, is composed of avian lineages from adjacent Amazonian areas of endemism, but also from open habitats, such as Cerrado. This raises the question: Is the parasite assemblage found in avian hosts on this island formed by parasite lineages from adjacent Amazonian areas of endemism or Cerrado? Here, we assessed the spatiotemporal evolution of Plasmodium and Parahaemoproteus parasites. Our biogeographic analysis showed that dispersal dominated Plasmodium diversification, whereas duplication was more frequent for the genus Parahaemoproteus. We show that the Inambari area of endemism was the primary source for Plasmodium diversity on Marajó Island, but that this island received more Parahaemoproteus lineages from Cerrado than any Amazonian area of endemism. The unique patterns of dispersal for each parasite genus coupled with their propensity to shift hosts locally may have facilitated their diversification across Amazonia, suggesting that differences in deep evolutionary history may have constrained their colonization of Marajó Island.

Co-infection with Leucocytozoon and Other Haemosporidian Parasites Increases with Latitude and Altitude in New World Bird Communities.

Establishing how environmental gradients and host ecology drive spatial variation in infection rates and diversity of pathogenic organisms is one of the central goals in disease ecology. Here, we identified the predictors of concomitant infection and lineage richness of blood parasites in New Word bird communities. Our multi-level Bayesian models revealed that higher latitudes and elevations played a determinant role in increasing the probability of a bird being co-infected with Leucocytozoon and other haemosporidian parasites. The heterogeneity in both single and co-infection rates was similarly driven by host attributes and temperature, with higher probabilities of infection in heavier migratory host species and at cooler localities. Latitude, elevation, host body mass, migratory behavior, and climate were also predictors of Leucocytozoon lineage richness across the New World avian communities, with decreasing parasite richness at higher elevations, rainy and warmer localities, and in heavier and resident host species. Increased parasite richness was found farther from the equator, confirming a reverse Latitudinal Diversity Gradient pattern for this parasite group. The increased rates of Leucocytozoon co-infection and lineage richness with increased latitude are in opposition with the pervasive assumption that pathogen infection rates and diversity are higher in tropical host communities.

Prevalence and genetic diversity of avian haemosporidian parasites in islands within a mega hydroelectric dam in the Brazilian Amazon.

The Brazilian Amazon supports an extremely diverse avifauna and serves as the diversification center for avian malaria parasites in South America. Construction of hydroelectric dams can drive biodiversity loss by creating islands incapable of sustaining the bird communities found in intact forest sites. Besides anthropogenic actions, the presence of parasites can also influence the dynamics and structure of bird communities. Avian malaria (Plasmodium) and related haemosporidian parasites (Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) are a globally distributed group of protozoan parasites recovered from all major bird groups. However, no study to date has analyzed the presence of avian haemosporidian parasites in fragmented areas such as land bridge islands formed during artificial flooding following the construction of hydroelectric dams. The aim of this study is to assess the prevalence and molecular diversity of haemosporidians in bird communities inhabiting artificial islands in the area of the Balbina Hydroelectric Dam. The reservoir area covers 443,700 ha with 3546 islands on the left bank of the Uatumã River known to contain more than 400 bird species. We surveyed haemosporidian infections in blood samples collected from 445 understory birds, belonging to 53 species, 24 families, and 8 orders. Passeriformes represented 95.5% of all analyzed samples. We found a low overall Plasmodium prevalence (2.9%), with 13 positive samples (two Plasmodium elongatum and 11 Plasmodium sp.) belonging to eight lineages. Six of these lineages were previously recorded in the Amazon, whereas two of them are new. Hypocnemis cantator, the Guianan Warbling Antbird, represented 38.5% of all infected individuals, even though it represents only 5.6% of the sampled individuals. Since comparison with Plasmodium prevalence data prior to construction of Balbina is not possible, other studies in artificially flooded areas are imperative to test if anthropogenic flooding may disrupt vector-parasite relationships leading to low Plasmodium prevalence.

Haemosporidian parasites and incubation period influence plumage coloration in tanagers (Passeriformes: Thraupidae).

Birds are highly visually oriented and use plumage coloration as an important signalling trait in social communication. Hence, males and females may have different patterns of plumage coloration, a phenomenon known as sexual dichromatism. Because males tend to have more complex plumages, sexual dichromatism is usually attributed to female choice. However, plumage coloration is partly condition-dependent; therefore, other selective pressures affecting individuals' success may also drive the evolution of this trait. Here, we used tanagers as model organisms to study the relationships between dichromatism and plumage coloration complexity in tanagers with parasitism by haemosporidians, investment in reproduction and life-history traits. We screened blood samples from 2849 individual birds belonging to 52 tanager species to detect haemosporidian parasites. We used publicly available data for plumage coloration, bird phylogeny and life-history traits to run phylogenetic generalized least-square models of plumage dichromatism and complexity in male and female tanagers. We found that plumage dichromatism was more pronounced in bird species with a higher prevalence of haemosporidian parasites. Lastly, high plumage coloration complexity in female tanagers was associated with a longer incubation period. Our results indicate an association between haemosporidian parasites and plumage coloration suggesting that parasites impact mechanisms of sexual selection, increasing differences between the sexes, and social (non-sexual) selection, driving females to develop more complex coloration.

Migratory behaviour does not alter cophylogenetic congruence between avian hosts and their haemosporidian parasites.

Parasites display various degrees of host specificity, reflecting different coevolutionary histories with their hosts. Avian hosts follow multiple migration patterns representing short but also long distances. As parasites infecting migratory birds are subjected to multiple environmental and biotic changes through their flyways, migration may disrupt or strengthen cophylogenetic congruence between hosts and parasites. On the one hand, parasites might adapt to a single migratory host, evolving to cope with the specific challenges associated with the multiple habitats occupied by the host. On the other, as migrants can introduce parasites into new habitats, higher rates of host switching could also disrupt cophylogenetic patterns. We analysed whether migratory behaviour shapes avian haemosporidian parasite­host cophylogenetic congruence by testing if contributions of host­parasite links to overall congruence differ among resident and short-, variable- and long-distance migrants globally and within South America only. On both scales, we found significant overall cophylogenetic congruence by testing whether overall congruence differed between haemosporidian lineages and bird species. However, we found no difference in contribution towards congruence among links involving resident vs migratory hosts in both models. Thus, migratory behaviour neither weakens nor strengthens bird­haemosporidian cophylogenetic congruence, suggesting that other avian host traits are more influential in generating phylogenetic congruence in this host­parasite system.

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Neodiplostomum and Fibricola (Digenea, Diplostomidae) does not support host-based systematics.

Fibricola and Neodiplostomum are diplostomid genera with very similar morphology that are currently separated based on their definitive hosts. Fibricola spp. are normally found in mammals, while Neodiplostomum spp. typically parasitize birds. Previously, no DNA sequence data was available for any member of Fibricola. We generated nuclear ribosomal and mtDNA sequences of Fibricola cratera (type-species), Fibricola lucidum and 6 species of Neodiplostomum. DNA sequences were used to examine phylogenetic interrelationships among Fibricola and Neodiplostomum and re-evaluate their systematics. Molecular phylogenies and morphological study suggest that Fibricola should be considered a junior synonym of Neodiplostomum. Therefore, we synonymize the two genera and transfer all members of Fibricola into Neodiplostomum. Specimens morphologically identified as Neodiplostomum cratera belonged to 3 distinct phylogenetic clades based on mitochondrial data. One of those clades also included sequences of specimens identified morphologically as Neodiplostomum lucidum. Further study is necessary to resolve the situation regarding the morphology of N. cratera. Our results demonstrated that some DNA sequences of N. americanum available in GenBank originate from misidentified Neodiplostomum banghami. Molecular phylogentic data revealed at least 2 independent host-switching events between avian and mammalian hosts in the evolutionary history of Neodiplostomum; however, the directionality of these host-switching events remains unclear.

Host life-history traits predict haemosporidian parasite prevalence in tanagers (Aves: Thraupidae).

Vector-borne parasites are important ecological drivers influencing life-history evolution in birds by increasing host mortality or susceptibility to new diseases. Therefore, understanding why vulnerability to infection varies within a host clade is a crucial task for conservation biology and for understanding macroecological life-history patterns. Here, we studied the relationship of avian life-history traits and climate on the prevalence of Plasmodium and Parahaemoproteus parasites. We sampled 3569 individual birds belonging to 53 species of the family Thraupidae. Individuals were captured from 2007 to 2018 at 92 locations. We created 2 phylogenetic generalized least-squares models with Plasmodium and Parahaemoproteus prevalence as our response variables, and with the following predictor variables: climate PC1, climate PC2, body size, mixed-species flock participation, incubation period, migration, nest height, foraging height, forest cover, and diet. We found that Parahaemoproteus and Plasmodium prevalence was higher in species inhabiting open habitats. Tanager species with longer incubation periods had higher Parahaemoproteus prevalence as well, and we hypothesize that these longer incubation periods overlap with maximum vector abundances, resulting in a higher probability of infection among adult hosts during their incubation period and among chicks. Lastly, we found that Plasmodium prevalence was higher in species without migratory behaviour, with mixed-species flock participation, and with an omnivorous or animal-derived diet. We discuss the consequences of higher infection prevalence in relation to life-history traits in tanagers.

Beta diversity, prevalence, and specificity of avian haemosporidian parasites throughout the annual cycle of Chilean Elaenia (Elaenia chilensis), a Neotropical austral migrant.

Migratory birds are implicated in dispersing haemosporidian parasites over great geographic distances. However, their role in sharing these vector-transmitted blood parasites with resident avian host species along their migration flyway is not well understood. We studied avian haemosporidian parasites in 10 localities where Chilean Elaenia, a long-distance Neotropical austral migrant species, spends part of its annual cycle to determine local parasite transmission among resident sympatric host species in the elaenia's distributional range across South America. We sampled 371 Chilean Elaenias and 1,818 birds representing 243 additional sympatric species from Brazilian wintering grounds to Argentinian breeding grounds. The 23 haemosporidian lineages found in Chilean Elaenias exhibited considerable variation in distribution, specialization, and turnover across the 10 avian communities in South America. Parasite lineage dissimilarity increased with geographic distance, and infection probability by Parahaemoproteus decreased in localities harbouring a more diverse haemosporidian fauna. Furthermore, blood smears from migrating Chilean Elaenias and local resident avian host species did not contain infective stages of Leucocytozoon, suggesting that transmission did not take place in the Brazilian stopover site. Our analyses confirm that this Neotropical austral migrant connects avian host communities and transports haemosporidian parasites along its distributional range in South America. However, the lack of transmissive stages at stopover site and the infrequent parasite lineage sharing between migratory host populations and residents at breeding and wintering grounds suggest that Chilean Elaenias do not play a significant role in dispersing haemosporidian parasites, nor do they influence local transmission across South America.

Host foraging behavior and nest type influence prevalence of avian haemosporidian parasites in the Pantanal.

Avian haemosporidians from the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus are vector transmitted parasites. A growing body of evidence suggests that variation in their prevalence within avian communities is correlated with a variety of avian ecological traits. Here, we examine the relationship between infection probability and diversity of haemosporidian lineages and avian host ecological traits (average body mass, foraging stratum, migratory behavior, and nest type). We used molecular methods to detect haemosporidian parasites in blood samples from 642 individual birds of 149 species surveyed at four localities in the Brazilian Pantanal. Based on cytochrome b sequences, we recovered 28 lineages of Plasmodium and 17 of Haemoproteus from 31 infected avian species. Variation in lineage diversity among bird species was not explained by avian ecological traits. Prevalence was heterogenous across avian hosts. Bird species that forage near the ground were less likely to be infected by Haemoproteus, whereas birds that build open cup nests were more likely infected by Haemoproteus. Furthermore, birds foraging in multiple strata were more likely to be infected by Plasmodium. Two other ecological traits, often related to host resistance (body mass and migratory behavior), did not predict infection probability among birds sampled in the Pantanal. Our results suggest that avian host traits are less important determinants of haemosporidian diversity in Pantanal than in other regions, but reinforces that host attributes, related to vector exposure, are to some extent important in modulating infection probability within an avian host assemblage.

Haemosporidian taxonomic composition, network centrality and partner fidelity between resident and migratory avian hosts.

Migration can modify interaction dynamics between parasites and their hosts with migrant hosts able to disperse parasites and impact local community transmission. Thus, studying the relationships among migratory hosts and their parasites is fundamental to elucidate how migration shapes host-parasite interactions. Avian haemosporidians are some of the most prevalent and diverse group of wildlife parasites and are also widely studied as models in ecological and evolutionary research. Here, we contrast partner fidelity, network centrality and parasite taxonomic composition among resident and non-resident avian hosts using presence/absence data on haemosporidians parasitic in South American birds as study model. We ran multilevel Bayesian models to assess the role of migration in determining partner fidelity (i.e., normalized degree) and centrality (i.e., weighted closeness) in host-parasite networks of avian hosts and their respective haemosporidian parasites. In addition, to evaluate parasite taxonomic composition, we performed permutational multivariate analyses of variance to quantify dissimilarity in haemosporidian lineages infecting different host migratory categories. We observed similar partner fidelity and parasite taxonomic composition among resident and migratory hosts. Conversely, we demonstrate that migratory hosts play a more central role in host-parasite networks than residents. However, when evaluating partially and fully migratory hosts separately, we observed that only partially migratory species presented higher network centrality when compared to resident birds. Therefore, migration does not lead to differences in both partner fidelity and parasite taxonomic composition. However, migratory behavior is positively associated with network centrality, indicating migratory hosts play more important roles in shaping host-parasite interactions and influence local transmission.

Mining increases the prevalence of avian haemosporidian parasites in Northeast Amazonia.

Studies contrasting parasite prevalence and host-parasite community structure between pristine and disturbed environments will improve our understanding of how deforestation affects disease transmission and parasite extinction. To determine how infection rates of a common and diverse group of avian blood parasites (Plasmodium and Haemoproteus) respond to changes in avian host composition after mining, we surveyed 25 bird communities from pristine forests (two forest types: plateau and hillside) and reforested sites in Northeast Amazonia. Infection rates and both parasite and avian host community structure exhibited considerable variation across the deforestation gradient. In opposition to the emerging pattern of lower avian haemosporidian prevalence in disturbed tropical forests in Africa, we show that secondary forests had higher haemosporidian prevalence in one of the largest mining areas of Amazonia. The dissimilarity displayed by bird communities may explain, in part, the higher prevalence of Haemoproteus in reforested areas owing to the tolerance of some bird species to open-canopy forest habitat. On the other hand, deforestation may cause local extinction of Plasmodium parasites due to the loss of their avian hosts that depend on closed-canopy primary forest habitats. Our results demonstrate that forest loss induced by anthropogenic changes can affect a host-parasite system and disturb both parasite transmission and diversity.

An inverse latitudinal gradient in infection probability and phylogenetic diversity for Leucocytozoon blood parasites in New World birds.

Geographic variation in environmental conditions as well as host traits that promote parasite transmission may impact infection rates and community assembly of vector-transmitted parasites. Identifying the ecological, environmental and historical determinants of parasite distributions and diversity is therefore necessary to understand disease outbreaks under changing environments. Here, we identified the predictors and contributions of infection probability and phylogenetic diversity of Leucocytozoon (an avian blood parasite) at site and species levels across the New World. To explore spatial patterns in infection probability and lineage diversity for Leucocytozoon parasites, we surveyed 69 bird communities from Alaska to Patagonia. Using phylogenetic Bayesian hierarchical models and high-resolution satellite remote-sensing data, we determined the relative influence of climate, landscape, geography and host phylogeny on regional parasite community assembly. Infection rates and parasite diversity exhibited considerable variation across regions in the Americas. In opposition to the latitudinal gradient hypothesis, both the diversity and prevalence of Leucocytozoon parasites decreased towards the equator. Host relatedness and traits known to promote vector exposure neither predicted infection probability nor parasite diversity. Instead, the probability of a bird being infected with Leucocytozoon increased with increasing vegetation cover (NDVI) and moisture levels (NDWI), whereas the diversity of parasite lineages decreased with increasing NDVI. Infection rates and parasite diversity also tended to be higher in cooler regions and higher latitudes. Whereas temperature partially constrains Leucocytozoon diversity and infection rates, landscape features, such as vegetation cover and water body availability, play a significant role in modulating the probability of a bird being infected. This suggests that, for Leucocytozoon, the barriers to host shifting and parasite host range expansion are jointly determined by environmental filtering and landscape, but not by host phylogeny. Our results show that integrating host traits, host ancestry, bioclimatic data and microhabitat characteristics that are important for vector reproduction are imperative to understand and predict infection prevalence and diversity of vector-transmitted parasites. Unlike other vector-transmitted diseases, our results show that Leucocytozoon diversity and prevalence will likely decrease with warming temperatures.

Low host specificity and lack of parasite avoidance by immature ticks in Brazilian birds.

Ticks are ectoparasites that feed on blood of a broad taxonomic range of terrestrial and flying vertebrates and are distributed across a wide range of environmental conditions. Here, we explore the biotic and abiotic factors on infestation probability of ticks of the genus Amblyomma and assess the degree of host specificity based on analysis of 1028 birds surveyed across Brazil. We show that tick infestation rates exhibited considerable variation across the 235 avian species analyzed and that the probability of an individual bird being parasitized by immature ticks (larvae and nymphs) increased with annual precipitation. Host phylogeny and two host ecological traits known to promote tick exposure (body mass and foraging behavior) did not predict infestation probability. Moreover, immature ticks displayed a low degree of host specificity at the family level. Lastly, tick occurrence in birds carrying infection with avian malaria and related parasites did not differ from those free of these haemosporidian parasites, indicating a lack of parasite avoidance by immature ticks. Our findings demonstrate that tick occurrence in birds across Brazilian biomes responds to environmental factors rather than ecological and evolutionary host attributes.

Host movement and time of year influence tick parasitism in Pantanal birds.

Ticks are among the best studied parasitic groups as they spread important pathogens of medical and veterinary importance worldwide. Migratory birds can play an important role in transporting ticks infected with pathogens across wide geographic regions. It is therefore important to understand which factors promote tick parasitism rates across their avian hosts and the associated potential for disease spread. Here, we identified the host attributes of infestation probability of ticks from the genus Amblyomma in 955 birds from Pantanal, Brazil. Infestation rates exhibited considerable variation across the 129 avian species surveyed and were explained by both host ecological traits and evolutionary history. The probability of an individual bird being infested with immature ticks (larvae and/or nymphs) was higher across resident bird species that forage at ground level and during the wet season. Bird species that feed on vertebrates were less likely to be infested by ticks. Other ecological traits known to promote tick exposure (age, body mass, social behavior, and sex) did not predict infestation probability. Our findings demonstrate that tick occurrence in Pantanal birds is determined by avian host attributes, but tick occurrence throughout the year constrains exposure to host-seeking ticks. Moreover, the ecology of the avian host might prevent the potential spread of tick-borne diseases outside Pantanal as migratory hosts are likely less infested by ticks.

Climate variation influences host specificity in avian malaria parasites.

Parasites with low host specificity (e.g. infecting a large diversity of host species) are of special interest in disease ecology, as they are likely more capable of circumventing ecological or evolutionary barriers to infect new hosts than are specialist parasites. Yet for many parasites, host specificity is not fixed and can vary in response to environmental conditions. Using data on host associations for avian malaria parasites (Apicomplexa: Haemosporida), we develop a hierarchical model that quantifies this environmental dependency by partitioning host specificity variation into region- and parasite-level effects. Parasites were generally phylogenetic host specialists, infecting phylogenetically clustered subsets of available avian hosts. However, the magnitude of this specialisation varied biogeographically, with parasites exhibiting higher host specificity in regions with more pronounced rainfall seasonality and wetter dry seasons. Recognising the environmental dependency of parasite specialisation can provide useful leverage for improving predictions of infection risk in response to global climate change.

Avian host composition, local speciation and dispersal drive the regional assembly of avian malaria parasites in South American birds.

Identifying the ecological factors that shape parasite distributions remains a central goal in disease ecology. These factors include dispersal capability, environmental filters and geographic distance. Using 520 haemosporidian parasite genetic lineages recovered from 7,534 birds sampled across tropical and temperate South America, we tested (a) the latitudinal diversity gradient hypothesis and (b) the distance-decay relationship (decreasing proportion of shared species between communities with increasing geographic distance) for this host-parasite system. We then inferred the biogeographic processes influencing the diversity and distributions of this cosmopolitan group of parasites across South America. We found support for a latitudinal gradient in diversity for avian haemosporidian parasites, potentially mediated through higher avian host diversity towards the equator. Parasite similarity was correlated with climate similarity, geographic distance and host composition. Local diversification in Amazonian lineages followed by dispersal was the most frequent biogeographic events reconstructed for haemosporidian parasites. Combining macroecological patterns and biogeographic processes, our study reveals that haemosporidian parasites are capable of circumventing geographic barriers and dispersing across biomes, although constrained by environmental filtering. The contemporary diversity and distributions of haemosporidian parasites are mainly driven by historical (speciation) and ecological (dispersal) processes, whereas the parasite community assembly is largely governed by host composition and to a lesser extent by environmental conditions.

Phylogenetic relationships, expanded diversity and distribution of Crassiphiala spp. (Digenea, Diplostomidae), agents of black spot disease in fish.

Crassiphiala is a monotypic genus of diplostomid digeneans and is the type genus of the subfamily Crassiphialinae. The type species Crassiphiala bulboglossa parasitizes kingfishers in the Nearctic and has a Neascus-type metacercaria that encysts on fish intermediate hosts, often causing black spot disease. While recent molecular phylogenetic studies included some members of the Crassiphialinae, no DNA sequence data of Crassiphiala is currently available. Our molecular and morphological study of adult and larval crassiphialines from the Americas revealed the presence of at least three lineages of Crassiphiala from the Nearctic and two lineages from the Neotropics. This is the first record of Crassiphiala from the Neotropics. Herein, we provide the first molecular phylogeny of the Diplostomoidea that includes Crassiphiala. Our data revealed 0.2-2.4% divergence among 28S sequences and 11-19.8% among CO1 sequences of lineages of Crassiphiala. The results of our analyses did not support the monophyly of Crassiphialinae. Our results clearly demonstrated that the diversity of Crassiphiala has been underestimated.

Avian malaria, ecological host traits and mosquito abundance in southeastern Amazonia.

Avian malaria is a vector transmitted disease caused by Plasmodium and recent studies suggest that variation in its prevalence across avian hosts is correlated with a variety of ecological traits. Here we examine the relationship between prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium lineages in southeastern Amazonia and: (1) host ecological traits (nest location, nest type, flocking behaviour and diet); (2) density and diversity of avian hosts; (3) abundance and diversity of mosquitoes; and (4) season. We used molecular methods to detect Plasmodium in blood samples from 675 individual birds of 120 species. Based on cytochrome b sequences, we recovered 89 lineages of Plasmodium from 136 infected individuals sampled across seven localities. Plasmodium prevalence was homogeneous over time (dry season and flooding season) and space, but heterogeneous among 51 avian host species. Variation in prevalence among bird species was not explained by avian ecological traits, density of avian hosts, or mosquito abundance. However, Plasmodium lineage diversity was positively correlated with mosquito abundance. Interestingly, our results suggest that avian host traits are less important determinants of Plasmodium prevalence and diversity in southeastern Amazonia than in other regions in which they have been investigated.

Host associations and turnover of haemosporidian parasites in manakins (Aves: Pipridae).

Parasites of the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus (Apicomplexa: Haemosporida) are a diverse group of pathogens that infect birds nearly worldwide. Despite their ubiquity, the ecological and evolutionary factors that shape the diversity and distribution of these protozoan parasites among avian communities and geographic regions are poorly understood. Based on a survey throughout the Neotropics of the haemosporidian parasites infecting manakins (Pipridae), a family of Passerine birds endemic to this region, we asked whether host relatedness, ecological similarity and geographic proximity structure parasite turnover between manakin species and local manakin assemblages. We used molecular methods to screen 1343 individuals of 30 manakin species for the presence of parasites. We found no significant correlations between manakin parasite lineage turnover and both manakin species turnover and geographic distance. Climate differences, species turnover in the larger bird community and parasite lineage turnover in non-manakin hosts did not correlate with manakin parasite lineage turnover. We also found no evidence that manakin parasite lineage turnover among host species correlates with range overlap and genetic divergence among hosts. Our analyses indicate that host switching (turnover among host species) and dispersal (turnover among locations) of haemosporidian parasites in manakins are not constrained at this scale.

Molecular evidence of Bartonella spp. in tropical wild birds from the Brazilian Pantanal, the largest wetland in South America.

Despite the worldwide occurrence of bartonellae in a broad range of mammal species, in which they usually cause a long-lasting erythrocytic bacteremia, few studies reported Bartonella spp. in avian hosts. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence and molecular identity of Bartonella spp. infecting birds in the Pantanal wetland, central-western Brazil using a multigene approach. For this purpose, blood samples were collected from 517 individuals from 13 avian orders in the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Groso do Sul. DNA was extracted from avian blood and 500/517 (96.7%) samples were positive in a conventional PCR targeting the avian ß-actin gene. Nineteen (3.8%) out of 500 avian blood samples were positive in a qPCR assay for Bartonella spp. based on the nuoG gene. Among 19 avian blood DNA samples positive in the qPCR for Bartonella spp., 12 were also positive in the qPCR for Bartonella based on the 16S-23S RNA Intergenic region (ITS). In the PCR assays performed for molecular characterization, one 16S rRNA, three ribC, and one nuoG sequences were obtained. Based on BLASTn results, while 1 nuoG, 2 ribC, and 2 ITS sequences showed high identity to Bartonella henselae, one 16S rRNA and 2 ITS showed high similarity to Bartonella machadoae in the sampled birds. Bartonella spp. related to B. henselae and B. machadoae were detected, for the first time, in wild birds from the Brazilian Pantanal.