Identification of the First Gene Transfer Agent (GTA) Small Terminase in Rhodobacter capsulatus and Its Role in GTA Production and Packaging of DNA.

Genetic exchange mediated by viruses of bacteria (bacteriophages) is the primary driver of rapid bacterial evolution. The priority of viruses is usually to propagate themselves. Most bacteriophages use the small terminase protein to identify their own genome and direct its inclusion into phage capsids. Gene transfer agents (GTAs) are descended from bacteriophages, but they instead package fragments of the entire bacterial genome without preference for their own genes. GTAs do not selectively target specific DNA, and no GTA small terminases are known. Here, we identified the small terminase from the model Rhodobacter capsulatus GTA, which then allowed prediction of analogues in other species. We examined the role of the small terminase in GTA production and propose a structural basis for random DNA packaging.IMPORTANCE Random transfer of any and all genes between bacteria could be influential in the spread of virulence or antimicrobial resistance genes. Discovery of the true prevalence of GTAs in sequenced genomes is hampered by their apparent similarity to bacteriophages. Our data allowed the prediction of small terminases in diverse GTA producer species, and defining the characteristics of a "GTA-type" terminase could be an important step toward novel GTA identification. Importantly, the GTA small terminase shares many features with its phage counterpart. We propose that the GTA terminase complex could become a streamlined model system to answer fundamental questions about double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) packaging by viruses that have not been forthcoming to date.

Phosphate concentration and the putative sensor kinase protein CckA modulate cell lysis and release of the Rhodobacter capsulatus gene transfer agent.

The gene transfer agent of Rhodobacter capsulatus (RcGTA) is a bacteriophage-like genetic element with the sole known function of horizontal gene transfer. Homologues of RcGTA genes are present in many members of the alphaproteobacteria and may serve an important role in microbial evolution. Transcription of RcGTA genes is induced as cultures enter the stationary phase; however, little is known about cis-active sequences. In this work, we identify the promoter of the first gene in the RcGTA structural gene cluster. Additionally, gene transduction frequency depends on the growth medium, and the reason for this is not known. We report that millimolar concentrations of phosphate posttranslationally inhibit the lysis-dependent release of RcGTA from cells in both a complex medium and a defined medium. Furthermore, we found that cell lysis requires the genes rcc00555 and rcc00556, which were expressed and studied in Escherichia coli to determine their predicted functions as an endolysin and holin, respectively. Production of RcGTA is regulated by host systems, including a putative histidine kinase, CckA, and we found that CckA is required for maximal expression of rcc00555 and for maturation of RcGTA to yield gene transduction-functional particles.

Characterization of the relationship between integrase, excisionase and antirepressor activities associated with a superinfecting Shiga toxin encoding bacteriophage.

Shigatoxigenic Escherichia coli emerged as new food borne pathogens in the early 1980s, primarily driven by the dispersal of Shiga toxin-encoding lambdoid bacteriophages. At least some of these Stx phages display superinfection phenotypes, which differ significantly from lambda phage itself, driving through in situ recombination further phage evolution, increasing host range and potentially increasing the host's pathogenic profile. Here, increasing levels of Stx phage Φ24(B) integrase expression in multiple lysogen cultures are demonstrated along with apparently negligible repression of integrase expression by the cognate CI repressor. The Φ24(B) int transcription start site and promoter region were identified and found to differ from in silico predictions. The unidirectional activity of this integrase was determined in an in situ, inducible tri-partite reaction. This indicated that Φ24(B) must encode a novel directionality factor that is controlling excision events during prophage induction. This excisionase was subsequently identified and characterized through complementation experiments. In addition, the previous proposal that a putative antirepressor was responsible for the lack of immunity to superinfection through inactivation of CI has been revisited and a new hypothesis involving the role of this protein in promoting efficient induction of the Φ24(B) prophage is proposed.