Single World Intervention Graphs (SWIGs): A Practical Guide.

This article offers a comprehensive and user-friendly guide to visualizing causal theories using Single World Intervention Graphs (SWIGs). We begin with a discussion of the potential outcomes approach to causality and limitations of using Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) under this framework. We then introduce SWIGs as a simple but powerful tool for integrating potential outcomes explicitly into causal diagrams. The article provides a step-by-step guide on transforming DAGs into SWIGs that includes practical insights into constructing SWIGs under various scenarios such as confounding, mediation, and sequential randomization. Highlighting the utility of SWIGs in practice, we illustrate their application in identifying the g-formula, showcasing their capacity to make causal estimands visually explicit. This article serves as a resource for epidemiologists and researchers interested in expanding their causal inference toolkit.

Asking MultiCrit Questions: A Reflexive and Critical Framework to Promote Health Data Equity for the Multiracial Population.

Policy Points Health equity work primarily centers monoracial populations; however, the rapid growth of the Multiracial population and increasingly clear health disparities affecting the people in that population complicate our understanding of racial health equity. Limited resources exist for health researchers and professionals grappling with this complexity, likely contributing to the relative dearth of health literature describing the Multiracial population. We introduce a question-based framework built on core principles from Critical Multiracial Theory (MultiCrit) and Critical Race Public Health Praxis, designed for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers to encourage health data equity for the Multiracial population.

Persistence of anxiety among Asian Americans: racial and ethnic heterogeneity in the longitudinal trends in mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.

PURPOSE: To examine within-individual time trends in mental well-being and factors influencing heterogeneity of these trends. METHODS: Longitudinal telephone survey of adults over 3 waves from the New York City (NYC) Metropolitan area during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Participants reported depression using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-8, anxiety using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)-7, and past 30-day increases in tobacco or alcohol use at each wave. Adjusted mixed effects logistic regression models assessed time trends in mental well-being. RESULTS: There were 1227 respondents. Over 3 study waves, there were statistically significant decreasing time trends in the odds of each outcome (adjusted OR (95% CI) 0.47 (0.37, 0.60); p < 0.001 for depression; aOR (95% CI) 0.55 (0.45, 0.66); p < 0.001 for anxiety; aOR (95% CI) 0.50 (0.35, 0.71); p < 0.001 for past 30-day increased tobacco use; aOR (95% CI) 0.31 (0.24, 0.40); p < 0.001 for past 30-day increased alcohol use). Time trends for anxiety varied by race and ethnicity (p value for interaction = 0.05, 4 df); anxiety declined over time among white, Black, Hispanic, and Other race and ethnicity but not among Asian participants. CONCLUSIONS: In a demographically varied population from the NYC Metropolitan area, depression, anxiety and increased substance use were common during the first months of the pandemic, but decreased over the following year. While this was consistently the case across most demographic groups, the odds of anxiety among Asian participants did not decrease over time.

Impact of supportive housing health homes program on medicaid utilization for persons diagnosed with HIV (PDWH).

ABSTRACTUnstable housing among persons diagnosed with HIV (PDWH) has been consistently linked to poor HIV-related care engagement. We examined the relationship between enrollment in a supportive housing program and health care utilization (use of outpatient services, emergency department (ED) visits, and hospitalizations) for a group of unstably housed, Medicaid and Health Homes (HH)-enrolled PDWH in New York State. We analyzed monthly longitudinal data consisting of linked supportive housing data, HH data, and Medicaid claims from New York State (excluding New York City) between 2012 and 2017 using time series models. Participants who had at least six consecutive months of supportive housing at month t had 20% higher odds of using an outpatient service, 19% lower odds of visiting the ED, and 24% lower odds of being hospitalized compared to those with less than six consecutive months of supportive housing after adjusting for covariates. Supportive housing may promote better medical management by increasing outpatient visits among chronically homeless PDWH.

We need to build the evidence: A systematic review of psychological first aid on mental health and well-being.

Ensuring effective mental health and psychosocial support is crucial following exposure to a potentially traumatic event and can have long-term consequences for individuals, families, and communities. Psychological first aid (PFA) has become a widespread intervention of choice following exposure to conflict or disaster; however, its impact is unknown. This systematic review assessed PFA efficacy in improving the mental health and psychosocial well-being of individuals exposed to potentially traumatic events. We searched PubMed, PsycINFO, PTSDpubs, and EMBASE for peer reviewed studies evaluating programmatic outcomes of PFA, or an adapted intervention, published in English before March 9, 2021. Studies evaluating training outcomes or program feasibility were excluded. The primary outcomes were reported measures of participant mental health and psychosocial well-being, with narrative results presented for each. The Cochrane Risk of Bias tool was applied. Of 9,048 potentially eligible citations, 12 studies with a total of 1,437 participants met the inclusion criteria. Only one study was a randomized controlled trial. The findings from all studies suggest a positive impact of PFA, with most reporting reduced symptoms of anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, and distress, as well as improved ratings of mood, the experience of safety, connectedness, and a sense of control, among youth and adults. Risk of bias was generally high. Inconsistent intervention components, insufficient evaluation methodologies, and a high risk of bias within the reviewed studies present challenges in assessing PFA efficacy, and an imbalance between popular support for PFA and scant evidence of outcome data exists. Further research is needed to justify the proliferation of PFA.

Substance Use Disorders and Diabetes Care: Lessons From New York Health Homes.

BACKGROUND: Individuals that have both diabetes and substance use disorder (SUD) are more likely to have adverse health outcomes and are less likely to receive high quality diabetes care, compared with patients without coexisting SUD. Care management programs for patients with chronic diseases, such as diabetes and SUD, have been associated with improvements in the process and outcomes of care. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to assess the impact of having coexisting SUD on diabetes process of care metrics. RESEARCH DESIGN: Preintervention/postintervention triple difference analysis. SUBJECTS: Participants in the New York State Medicaid Health Home (NYS-HH) care management program who have diabetes and a propensity-matched comparison group of nonparticipants (N=37,260). MEASURES: Process of care metrics for patients with diabetes: an eye (retinal) exam, HbA1c test, medical attention (screening laboratory measurements) for nephropathy, and receiving all 3 in the past year. RESULTS: Before enrollment in NYS-HH, individuals with comorbid SUD had fewer claims for eye exams and HbA1c tests compared with those without comorbid SUD. Diabetes process of care improvements associated with NYS-HH enrollment were larger among those with comorbid SUD [eye exam: adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=1.08; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01-1.15]; HbA1c test: AOR=1.20 (95% CI: 1.11-1.29); medical attention for nephropathy: AOR=1.21 (95% CI: 1.12-1.31); all 3: AOR=1.09 (95% CI: 1.02-1.16). CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with both diabetes and SUD may benefit moderately more from care management than those without comorbid SUD. Individuals with both SUD and diabetes who are not enrolled in care management may be missing out on crucial diabetes care.

Hepatitis C Virus Screening among Medicaid-Insured Individuals with Opioid Use Disorder across Substance Use Disorder Treatment Settings.

Objective: Although the rapid increase in opioid use disorders (OUD) and concurrent increase in Hepatitis C virus (HCV) in the United States is well-documented, little is known about HCV testing among high-risk populations. We examine patterns of HCV testing across OUD treatment settings for individuals with OUD in New York. Methods: Using 2014 New York Medicaid claims data, we identified OUD diagnosis, OUD treatment (methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone, other treatment (inpatient or outpatient non-medication-based psychosocial treatment, such as psychotherapy) and no treatment) utilization and HCV-testing status among beneficiaries. We performed multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with HCV screening across OUD treatment settings. Results: 79,764 individuals with OUD diagnoses were identified in 2014. The prevalence of HCV screening was 32.4%, 16.2%, 20.6%, 16.8%, and 18.1% for those receiving methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone, other treatment, and no treatment, respectively. In the adjusted logistic regression, those receiving any OUD treatment had greater odds of being screened, with the highest odds among methadone clients. Conclusions: Engagement in medication for OUD is associated with increased HCV testing. Findings indicate the importance of access to medication-based treatment for OUD and a need to further improve HCV screening rates.

The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: Psychometric Properties among Earthquake Survivors.

Evidence for a single underlying factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children remains elusive. We assessed the underlying factor structure of the Child PTSD Symptom Scale through exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in 570 survivors of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal. The EFA suggests that the three-factor DSM-IV model fit these data best. The CFA suggests that while the DSM-IV model adequately fit these data, the four-factor King model fit them better. There was no evidence of differential item functioning by age or gender, and internal consistency of the scale was high. PTSD (overall or by factor) was not correlated with functional impairment. Inconsistent psychometric results across contexts and methodologies suggest that our current theoretical conceptualizations and empirical models of posttraumatic stress are lacking. Future studies must both document the instrument properties to assure internal validity and cross-study comparisons and, bolstered by increased psychometric data and analyses, rework theoretical models of PTSD with improved cross-cultural validity.

Rural vs urban residence and experience of discrimination among people with severe mental illnesses in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have addressed mental illness-related discrimination in low-income countries, where the mental health treatment gap is highest. We aimed to evaluate the experience of discrimination among persons with severe mental illnesses (SMI) in Ethiopia, a low-income, rapidly urbanizing African country, and hypothesised that experienced discrimination would be higher among those living in a rural compared to an urban setting. METHODS: The study was a cross-sectional survey of a community-ascertained sample of people with SMI who underwent confirmatory diagnostic interview. Experienced discrimination was measured using the Discrimination and Stigma Scale (DISC-12). Zero-inflated negative binomial regression was used to estimate the effect of place of residence (rural vs. urban) on discrimination, adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS: Of the 300 study participants, 63.3% had experienced discrimination in the previous year, most commonly being avoided or shunned because of mental illness (38.5%). Urban residents were significantly more likely to have experienced unfair treatment from friends (χ2(1) = 4.80; p = 0.028), the police (χ2(1) =11.97; p = 0.001), in keeping a job (χ2(1) = 5.43; p = 0.020), and in safety (χ2(1) = 5.00; p = 0.025), and had a significantly higher DISC-12 score than those living in rural areas (adjusted risk ratio: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.18, 2.33). CONCLUSIONS: Persons with SMI living in urban settings report more experience of discrimination than their rural counterparts, which may reflect a downside of wider social opportunities in urban settings. Initiatives to expand access to mental health care should consider how social exclusion can be overcome in different settings.

Automated, tailored adaptive mobile messaging to reduce alcohol consumption in help-seeking adults: A randomized controlled trial.

AIMS: To test differential outcomes between three 6-month text-messaging interventions to reduce at-risk drinking in help-seeking adults. DESIGN: A three-arm single-blind randomized controlled trial with 1-, 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-ups. SETTING: United States. A fully remote trial without human contact, with participants recruited primarily via social media outlets. PARTICIPANTS: Seven hundred and twenty-three adults (mean = 39.9 years, standard deviation = 10.0; 62.5% female) seeking to reduce their drinking were allocated to 6 months of baseline 'tailored statically' messaging (TS; n = 240), 'tailored adaptive' messaging (TA; n = 239) or 'drink tracking' messaging (DT; n = 244). INTERVENTIONS: TS consisted of daily text messages to reduce harmful drinking that were tailored to demographics and alcohol use. TA consisted of daily, tailored text messages that were also adapted based on goal achievement and proactive prompts. DT consisted of a weekly assessment for self-reported drinking over the past 7 days. MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome measure was weekly sum of standard drinks (SSD) at 6-month follow-up. Secondary outcome measures included drinks per drinking day (DDD), number of drinking days (NDD) per week and heavy drinking days (HDD) at 1-, 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-ups. FINDINGS: At 6 months, compared with DT, TA resulted in significant SSD reductions of 16.2 (from 28.7 to 12.5) drinks [adjusted risk ratio (aRR) = 0.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.71, 0.91] using intent-to-treat analysis. TA also resulted in significant improvements in DDD (aRR = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.77-0.92) and drinking days per week (b = -0.39; 95% CI = -0.67, -0.10), but not HDD compared with DT at 6 months. TA was not significantly different from TS at any time-point, except DDD at 6 months. All groups made improvements in SSD at 12-month follow-up compared with baseline with an average reduction of 12.9 drinks per week across groups. CONCLUSIONS: Automated tailored mobile messaging interventions are scalable solutions that can reduce weekly alcohol consumption in remote help-seeking drinkers over time.

Impacts of COVID-19 on alcohol use among help-seeking adults.

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has been associated with both increased and decreased alcohol use. Authors explored reasons for increased and decreased alcohol use since the COVID-19 lockdown (March 2020) in a sample of help-seeking adults (HSA) participating in a remote-based alcohol reduction text-messaging intervention in the USA. At the time of recruitment, the HSA in this study were interested in reducing rather than stopping their alcohol consumption. An optional self-report questionnaire was completed by 324 participants (mean age 41.6 ± 10.2 years; 71.5% female; 83.9% White) in February 2021. Survey questions assessed sociodemographic factors, social stressors (quarantine conditions, employment status, changes to daily routine), and drinking patterns. Authors fit two ordinal logistic regression models: one for increased drinking and one for decreased drinking, as functions of the potential predictors and control variables. Most participants (n = 281; 87.0%) reported drinking more than usual since COVID-19 lockdown began. The most common self-reported reasons for drinking more were increased stress/anxiety (74.7%), boredom (69.4%), and spending more time at home (65.5%) whereas reasons for drinking less were less socializing (33.7%) and worrying about how alcohol would impact the immune system (31.5%). Identifying as female, severity of changes to daily routine, and increased access to alcohol were significantly associated with drinking more than usual. These data suggest that the general consequences of the pandemic in the general population (e.g., boredom) led to greater alcohol use among help-seeking adults attempting to reduce their drinking. Identifying these factors may help create more targeted interventions during public health crises.

Effects of Medicaid Health Homes among people with substance use disorder and another chronic condition on health care utilization and spending: Lessons from New York State.

INTRODUCTION: New York State implemented a Health Homes (HH) care management program to facilitate access to health services for Medicaid enrollees with multiple chronic conditions. This study assessed the impact of HH on health care utilization outcomes among enrollees who have substance use disorder (SUD). METHODS: Using HH enrollment data and Medicaid claims data 1 year before and after enrollment, this study compared HH enrollees who enrolled between 2012 and 2014 to a statistically matched comparison group created with propensity score methods. Analyses used generalized gamma models, logistic regression models, and difference-in-differences analyses to assess the impact of HH on general (all-cause) health care and SUD-related outpatient, emergency department (ED), hospitalization, and detoxification utilization as well as total Medicaid cost. RESULTS: The sample consisted of 41,229 HH enrollees and a comparison group of 39,471 matched patients. HH-enrolled patients who had SUD utilized less SUD-related ED services (average marginal effect (AME) = -1.85; 95% CI = -2.45, -1.24), SUD-related hospitalizations (AME = -1.28; 95% CI: -1.64, -0.93), and detoxification services (AME = -1.30; 95% CI = -1.64, -0.96), relative to the comparison group during the 1 year post-HH enrollment. SUD-related outpatient visits did not change significantly (AME = -0.28; 95% CI = -0.76, 0.19) for enrollees, but general health care outpatient visits increased (AME = 1.63; 95% CI = 1.33, 1.93). CONCLUSION: These findings provide preliminary evidence that care management programs can decrease ED visits and hospitalizations among people with SUD.

Mental Health First Aid: A Systematic Review of Trainee Behavior and Recipient Mental Health Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) is a globally disseminated course that trains members of the public to recognize and respond to mental health issues in their communities. Although substantial evidence suggests that MHFA training is associated with positive changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intent, little is known about how MHFA trainee-delivered aid supports mental health needs. This systematic review sought to summarize the extant research evaluating MHFA trainees' helping behaviors and the impacts of these behaviors on people experiencing a mental health problem (i.e., recipients). METHODS: Electronic databases were searched for MHFA evaluations published before or on March 9, 2021. Studies that evaluated at least one outcome related to trainee helping behavior or recipient mental health were included in the synthesis. Outcomes were organized into three categories: trainee use of MHFA skills, helpfulness of trainees' actions, and recipients' mental health. Only studies that compared pre- and posttraining outcomes, included a control group, and directly evaluated MHFA were used to assess its efficacy. RESULTS: The search identified 31 studies, nine of which met criteria to assess MHFA efficacy. The findings of the nine studies indicated that MHFA had mixed effects on trainees using the skills taught in the course and no effects on the helpfulness of trainees' actions or on recipient mental health. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that there is insufficient current evidence that MHFA improves the helping behaviors of trainees or the mental health of those receiving helping behaviors. They highlight a crucial research gap that should be prioritized as MHFA continues to grow in popularity.