AhR sensing of bacterial pigments regulates antibacterial defence.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a highly conserved ligand-dependent transcription factor that senses environmental toxins and endogenous ligands, thereby inducing detoxifying enzymes and modulating immune cell differentiation and responses. We hypothesized that AhR evolved to sense not only environmental pollutants but also microbial insults. We characterized bacterial pigmented virulence factors, namely the phenazines from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the naphthoquinone phthiocol from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, as ligands of AhR. Upon ligand binding, AhR activation leads to virulence factor degradation and regulated cytokine and chemokine production. The relevance of AhR to host defence is underlined by heightened susceptibility of AhR-deficient mice to both P. aeruginosa and M. tuberculosis. Thus, we demonstrate that AhR senses distinct bacterial virulence factors and controls antibacterial responses, supporting a previously unidentified role for AhR as an intracellular pattern recognition receptor, and identify bacterial pigments as a new class of pathogen-associated molecular patterns.

Thyrotropin Receptor: Allosteric Modulators Illuminate Intramolecular Signaling Mechanisms at the Interface of Ecto- and Transmembrane Domain.

The large TSH-bound ectodomain of the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) activates the transmembrane domain (TMD) indirectly via an internal agonist (IA). The ectodomain/TMD interface consists of a converging helix, a Cys-Cys-bridge-linked IA, and extracellular loops (ECL). To investigate the intramolecular course of molecular activation, especially details of the indirect activation, we narrowed down allosteric inhibition sites of negative allosteric modulator (NAM) by mutagenesis, homology modeling, and competition studies with positive allosteric modulator (PAM). From the inhibitory effects of NAM S37a on: 1) chimeras with swapped ectodomain, 2) stepwise N-terminal truncations, 3) distinct constitutively active mutations distributed across the hinge region and ECL, but not across the TMD, we conclude that S37a binds at the ectodomain/TMD interface, between the converging helix, ECL1, and the IA. This is also supported by the noncompetitive inhibition of PAM-C2-activation by S37a in the TSHR-TMD construct lacking the ectodomain. Mutagenesis studies on the IA and ECL were guided by our refined model of the ectodomain/TMD interface and indicate an interaction with the TSHR-specific residues E404 (preceding IA) and H478 (ECL1). At this new allosteric interaction site, NAM S37a blocks both TSH- and PAM-induced activation of the TSHR. Our refined models, mutations, and new allosteric binding pocket helped us to gain more detailed insights into the intramolecular course of TSHR activation at the ectodomain/TMD interface, including the delocalization of the converging helix and rearrangement of the conformation of IA. These changes are embedded between the ECL and cooperatively trigger active conformations of TMD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The intramolecular activation mechanisms of the TSHR appear to be distinct from those of other G protein-coupled receptors, as the TSHR has a uniquely large N-terminal ectodomain that includes the hormone binding site and an internal agonist sequence. We present new molecular and structural insights into the interface between ectodomain and transmembrane domain in the TSHR, as well as the transfer of activation to the transmembrane domain. This knowledge is critical for understanding activation or inhibition of the receptor by allosteric ligands. We have identified a new allosteric antagonist binding pocket that is located exactly at this interface and possesses specific features that may allow the generation of potent highly TSHR-selective drugs, of potential value for the treatment of Graves' orbitopathy.

Targeting G†Protein-Coupled Receptors by Capture Compound Mass Spectrometry: A Case Study with Sertindole.

Unbiased chemoproteomic profiling of small-molecule interactions with endogenous proteins is important for drug discovery. For meaningful results, all protein classes have to be tractable, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptors are hardly tractable by affinity pulldown from lysates. We report a capture compound (CC)-based strategy to target and identify GPCRs directly from living cells. We synthesized CCs with sertindole attached to the CC scaffold in different orientations to target the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) heterologously expressed in HEK 293 cells. The structure-activity relationship of sertindole for DRD2 binding was reflected in the activities of the sertindole CCs in radioligand displacement, cell-based assays, and capture compound mass spectrometry (CCMS). The activity pattern was rationalized by molecular modelling. The most-active CC showed activities very similar to that of unmodified sertindole. A concentration of DRD2 in living cells well below 100 fmol used as an experimental input was sufficient for unambiguous identification of captured DRD2 by mass spectrometry. Our new CCMS workflow broadens the arsenal of chemoproteomic technologies to close a critical gap for the comprehensive characterization of drug-protein interactions.

The specific monomer/dimer equilibrium of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 is established in the endoplasmic reticulum.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the most important drug targets. Although the smallest functional unit of a GPCR is a monomer, it became clear in the past decades that the vast majority of the receptors form dimers. Only very recently, however, data were presented that some receptors may in fact be expressed as a mixture of monomers and dimers and that the interaction of the receptor protomers is dynamic. To date, equilibrium measurements were restricted to the plasma membrane due to experimental limitations. We have addressed the question as to where this equilibrium is established for the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1. By developing a novel approach to analyze single molecule fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy data for intracellular membrane compartments, we show that the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 has a specific monomer/dimer equilibrium that is already established in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It remains constant at the plasma membrane even following receptor activation. Moreover, we demonstrate for seven additional GPCRs that they are expressed in specific but substantially different monomer/dimer ratios. Although it is well known that proteins may dimerize in the ER in principle, our data show that the ER is also able to establish the specific monomer/dimer ratios of GPCRs, which sheds new light on the functions of this compartment.

Small-molecule screening identifies modulators of aquaporin-2 trafficking.

In the principal cells of the renal collecting duct, arginine vasopressin (AVP) stimulates the synthesis of cAMP, leading to signaling events that culminate in the phosphorylation of aquaporin-2 water channels and their redistribution from intracellular domains to the plasma membrane via vesicular trafficking. The molecular mechanisms that control aquaporin-2 trafficking and the consequent water reabsorption, however, are not completely understood. Here, we used a cell-based assay and automated immunofluorescence microscopy to screen 17,700 small molecules for inhibitors of the cAMP-dependent redistribution of aquaporin-2. This approach identified 17 inhibitors, including 4-acetyldiphyllin, a selective blocker of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase that increases the pH of intracellular vesicles and causes accumulation of aquaporin-2 in the Golgi compartment. Although 4-acetyldiphyllin did not inhibit forskolin-induced increases in cAMP formation and downstream activation of protein kinase A (PKA), it did prevent cAMP/PKA-dependent phosphorylation at serine 256 of aquaporin-2, which triggers the redistribution to the plasma membrane. It did not, however, prevent cAMP-induced changes to the phosphorylation status at serines 261 or 269. Last, we identified the fungicide fluconazole as an inhibitor of cAMP-mediated redistribution of aquaporin-2, but its target in this pathway remains unknown. In conclusion, our screening approach provides a method to begin dissecting molecular mechanisms underlying AVP-mediated water reabsorption, evidenced by our identification of 4-acetyldiphyllin as a modulator of aquaporin-2 trafficking.

From molecular details of the interplay between transmembrane helices of the thyrotropin receptor to general aspects of signal transduction in family a G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

Transmembrane helices (TMHs) 5 and 6 are known to be important for signal transduction by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Our aim was to characterize the interface between TMH5 and TMH6 of the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) to gain molecular insights into aspects of signal transduction and regulation. A proline at TMH5 position 5.50 is highly conserved in family A GPCRs and causes a twist in the helix structure. Mutation of the TSHR-specific alanine (Ala-5935·5°) at this position to proline resulted in a 20-fold reduction of cell surface expression. This indicates that TMH5 in the TSHR might have a conformation different from most other family A GPCRs by forming a regular α-helix. Furthermore, linking our own and previous data from directed mutagenesis with structural information led to suggestions of distinct pairs of interacting residues between TMH5 and TMH6 that are responsible for stabilizing either the basal or the active state. Our insights suggest that the inactive state conformation is constrained by a core set of polar interactions among TMHs 2, 3, 6, and 7 and in contrast that the active state conformation is stabilized mainly by non-polar interactions between TMHs 5 and 6. Our findings might be relevant for all family A GPCRs as supported by a statistical analysis of residue properties between the TMHs of a vast number of GPCR sequences.

Inhibition of biosynthesis of human endothelin B receptor by the cyclodepsipeptide cotransin.

The specific inhibition of the biosynthesis of target proteins is a relatively novel strategy in pharmacology and is based mainly on antisense approaches (e.g. antisense oligonucleotides or RNA interference). Recently, a novel class of substances was described acting at a later step of protein biosynthesis. The cyclic heptadepsipeptides CAM741 and cotransin were shown to inhibit selectively the biosynthesis of a small subset of secretory proteins by preventing stable insertion of the nascent chains into the Sec61 translocon complex at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane (Besemer, J., Harant, H., Wang, S., Oberhauser, B., Marquardt, K., Foster, C. A., Schreiner, E. P., de Vries, J. E., Dascher-Nadel, C., and Lindley, I. J. (2005) Nature 436, 290-293; Garrison, J. L., Kunkel, E. J., Hegde, R. S., and Taunton, J. (2005) Nature 436, 285-289). These peptides act in a signal sequence-discriminatory manner, which explains their selectivity. Here, we have analyzed the cotransin sensitivity of various G protein-coupled receptors in transfected HEK 293 cells. We show that the biosynthesis of the human endothelin B receptor (ET(B)R) is highly sensitive to cotransin, in contrast to that of the other G protein-coupled receptors analyzed. Using a novel biosynthesis assay based on fusions with the photoconvertible Kaede protein, we show that the IC(50) value of cotransin action on ET(B)R biosynthesis is 5.4 µm and that ET(B)R signaling could be completely blocked by treating cells with 30 µm cotransin. Taken together, our data add an integral membrane protein, namely the ET(B)R, to the small group of cotransin-sensitive proteins.

Small molecule AKAP-protein kinase A (PKA) interaction disruptors that activate PKA interfere with compartmentalized cAMP signaling in cardiac myocytes.

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) tether protein kinase A (PKA) and other signaling proteins to defined intracellular sites, thereby establishing compartmentalized cAMP signaling. AKAP-PKA interactions play key roles in various cellular processes, including the regulation of cardiac myocyte contractility. We discovered small molecules, 3,3'-diamino-4,4'-dihydroxydiphenylmethane (FMP-API-1) and its derivatives, which inhibit AKAP-PKA interactions in vitro and in cultured cardiac myocytes. The molecules bind to an allosteric site of regulatory subunits of PKA identifying a hitherto unrecognized region that controls AKAP-PKA interactions. FMP-API-1 also activates PKA. The net effect of FMP-API-1 is a selective interference with compartmentalized cAMP signaling. In cardiac myocytes, FMP-API-1 reveals a novel mechanism involved in terminating ß-adrenoreceptor-induced cAMP synthesis. In addition, FMP-API-1 leads to an increase in contractility of cultured rat cardiac myocytes and intact hearts. Thus, FMP-API-1 represents not only a novel means to study compartmentalized cAMP/PKA signaling but, due to its effects on cardiac myocytes and intact hearts, provides the basis for a new concept in the treatment of chronic heart failure.

Mutations that silence constitutive signaling activity in the allosteric ligand-binding site of the thyrotropin receptor.

The thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) exhibits elevated cAMP signaling in the basal state and becomes fully activated by thyrotropin. Previously we presented evidence that small-molecule ligands act allosterically within the transmembrane region in contrast to the orthosteric extracellular hormone-binding sites. Our goal in this study was to identify positions that surround the allosteric pocket and that are sensitive for inactivation of TSHR. Homology modeling combined with site-directed mutagenesis and functional characterization revealed seven mutants located in the allosteric binding site that led to a decrease of basal cAMP signaling activity. The majority of these silencing mutations, which constrain the TSHR in an inactive conformation, are found in two clusters when mapped onto the 3D structural model. We suggest that the amino acid positions identified herein are indicating locations where small-molecule antagonists, both neutral antagonists and inverse agonists, might interfere with active TSHR conformations.

Use of Kaede fusions to visualize recycling of G protein-coupled receptors.

The heptahelical G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are internalized following agonist treatment and either recycle rapidly to the plasma membrane or enter the lysosomal degradation pathway. Many conventional GPCR recycling assays suffer from the fact that receptors arriving from the secretory pathway may interfere with recycling receptors. In this study, we introduce a new methodology to study post-endocytotic GPCR trafficking using fusions with the recently cloned Kaede protein. In contrast to the widely used green fluorescent protein, the fluorescence of Kaede can be converted from green to red using ultraviolet irradiation. Our methodology allows to study recycling of GPCRs microscopically in real-time bypassing problems with secretory pathway receptors. Initially, receptors are internalized using an agonist. Fluorescence signals in endosomes are switched, and trafficking of the receptors to the plasma membrane can be easily visualized by monitoring their new fluorescence. Using this methodology, we show that the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 belongs to the family of recycling GPCRs. Moreover, we demonstrate by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy that Kaede does not oligomerize when fused to membrane proteins, representing an additional advantage of this technique. The Kaede technology may be a powerful tool to study membrane protein trafficking in general.

The pseudo signal peptide of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 2a decreases receptor expression and prevents Gi-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity.

The corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 2a (CRF(2(a))R) belongs to the family of G protein-coupled receptors. The receptor possesses an N-terminal pseudo signal peptide that is unable to mediate targeting of the nascent chain to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane during early receptor biogenesis. The pseudo signal peptide remains uncleaved and consequently forms an additional hydrophobic receptor domain with unknown function that is unique within the large G protein-coupled receptor protein family. Here, we have analyzed the functional significance of this domain in comparison with the conventional signal peptide of the homologous corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 (CRF(1)R). We show that the presence of the pseudo signal peptide leads to a very low cell surface receptor expression of the CRF(2(a))R in comparison with the CRF(1)R. Moreover, whereas the presence of the pseudo signal peptide did not affect coupling to the G(s) protein, G(i)-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity was abolished. The properties mediated by the pseudo signal peptide were entirely transferable to the CRF(1)R in signal peptide exchange experiments. Taken together, our results show that signal peptides do not only influence early protein biogenesis. In the case of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtypes, the use of conventional and pseudo signal peptides have an unexpected influence on signal transduction.

Signaling-sensitive amino acids surround the allosteric ligand binding site of the thyrotropin receptor.

The thyrotropin receptor [thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR)], a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is endogenously activated by thyrotropin, which binds to the extracellular region of the receptor. We previously identified a low-molecular-weight (LMW) agonist of the TSHR and predicted its allosteric binding pocket within the receptor's transmembrane domain. Because binding of the LMW agonist probably disrupts interactions or leads to formation of new interactions among amino acid residues surrounding the pocket, we tested whether mutation of residues at these positions would lead to constitutive signaling activity. Guided by molecular modeling, we performed site-directed mutagenesis of 24 amino acids in this spatial region, followed by functional characterization of the mutant receptors in terms of expression and signaling, measured as cAMP accumulation. We found that mutations V421I, Y466A, T501A, L587V, M637C, M637W, S641A, Y643F, L645V, and Y667A located in several helices exhibit constitutive activity. Of note is mutation M637W at position 6.48 in transmembrane helix 6, which has a significant effect on the interaction of the receptor with the LMW agonist. In summary, we found that a high proportion of residues in several helices surrounding the allosteric binding site of LMW ligands in the TSHR when mutated lead to constitutively active receptors. Our findings of signaling-sensitive residues in this region of the transmembrane bundle may be of general importance as this domain appears to be evolutionarily retained among GPCRs.

Novel Method for Quantifying AhR-Ligand Binding Affinities Using Microscale Thermophoresis.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a highly conserved cellular sensor of a variety of environmental pollutants and dietary-, cell- and microbiota-derived metabolites with important roles in fundamental biological processes. Deregulation of the AhR pathway is implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune diseases and cancer, rendering AhR a promising target for drug development and host-directed therapy. The pharmacological intervention of AhR processes requires detailed information about the ligand binding properties to allow specific targeting of a particular signaling process without affecting the remaining. Here, we present a novel microscale thermophoresis-based approach to monitoring the binding of purified recombinant human AhR to its natural ligands in a cell-free system. This approach facilitates a precise identification and characterization of unknown AhR ligands and represents a screening strategy for the discovery of potential selective AhR modulators.

Author Correction: The Henna pigment Lawsone activates the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and impacts skin homeostasis.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

The sequence after the signal peptide of the G protein-coupled endothelin B receptor is required for efficient translocon gating at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

The heptahelical G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) must reach their correct subcellular location to exert their function. Receptor domains relevant for receptor trafficking include signal sequences mediating receptor integration into the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and anterograde or retrograde transport signals promoting receptor sorting into the vesicles of the secretory pathway. In addition, receptors must be correctly folded to pass the quality control system of the early secretory pathway. Taking the endothelin B receptor as a model, we describe a new type of a transport-relevant GPCR domain. Deletion of this domain (residues Glu(28) to Trp(54)) leads to a fully functional receptor protein that is expressed at a lower level than the wild-type receptor. Subcellular localization experiments and glycosylation state analyses demonstrate that the mutant receptor is neither misfolded, retained intracellularly, nor misrouted. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching analyses demonstrate that constitutive internalization is also not affected. By using an in vitro prion protein targeting assay, we show that this domain is necessary for efficient translocon gating at the ER membrane during early receptor biogenesis. Taken together, we identified a novel transport-relevant domain in the GPCR protein family. Our data may also be relevant for other GPCRs and unrelated integral membrane proteins.

A New Highly Thyrotropin Receptor-Selective Small-Molecule Antagonist with Potential for the Treatment of Graves' Orbitopathy.

BACKGROUND: The thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) is the target for autoimmune thyroid stimulating antibodies (TSAb) triggering hyperthyroidism. Whereas elevated thyroid hormone synthesis by the thyroid in Graves' disease can be treated by antithyroid agents, for the pathogenic activation of TSHR in retro-orbital fibroblasts of the eye, leading to Graves' orbitopathy (GO), no causal TSHR directed therapy is available. METHODS: Due to the therapeutic gap for severe GO, TSHR inhibitors were identified by high-throughput screening in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing the TSHR. Stereo-selective synthesis of the screening hits led to the molecule S37, which contains seven chiral centers. Enantiomeric separation of the molecule S37 resulted in the enantiopure molecule S37a-a micro-molar antagonist of thyrotropin-induced cyclic adenosine monophosphate accumulation in HEK 293 cells expressing the TSHR. RESULTS: The unique rigid bent shape of molecule S37a may mediate the observed high TSHR selectivity. Most importantly, the closely related follitropin and lutropin receptors were not affected by this compound. S37a not only inhibits the TSHR activation by thyrotropin itself but also activation by monoclonal TSAb M22 (human), KSAb1 (murine), and the allosteric small-molecule agonist C2. Disease-related ex vivo studies in HEK 293 cells expressing the TSHR showed that S37a also inhibits cyclic adenosine monophosphate formation by oligoclonal TSAb, which are highly enriched in GO patients' sera. Initial in vivo pharmacokinetic studies revealed no toxicity of S37a and a remarkable 53% oral bioavailability in mice. CONCLUSION: In summary, a novel highly selective inhibitor for the TSHR is presented, which has promising potential for further development for the treatment of GO.

Host monitoring of quorum sensing during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa rapidly adapts to altered conditions by quorum sensing (QS), a communication system that it uses to collectively modify its behavior through the production, release, and detection of signaling molecules. QS molecules can also be sensed by hosts, although the respective receptors and signaling pathways are poorly understood. We describe a pattern of regulation in the host by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) that is critically dependent on qualitative and quantitative sensing of P. aeruginosa quorum. QS molecules bind to AhR and distinctly modulate its activity. This is mirrored upon infection with P. aeruginosa collected from diverse growth stages and with QS mutants. We propose that by spying on bacterial quorum, AhR acts as a major sensor of infection dynamics, capable of orchestrating host defense according to the status quo of infection.

The Henna pigment Lawsone activates the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and impacts skin homeostasis.

As a first host barrier, the skin is constantly exposed to environmental insults that perturb its integrity. Tight regulation of skin homeostasis is largely controlled by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Here, we demonstrate that Henna and its major pigment, the naphthoquinone Lawsone activate AhR, both in vitro and in vivo. In human keratinocytes and epidermis equivalents, Lawsone exposure enhances the production of late epidermal proteins, impacts keratinocyte differentiation and proliferation, and regulates skin inflammation. To determine the potential use of Lawsone for therapeutic application, we harnessed human, murine and zebrafish models. In skin regeneration models, Lawsone interferes with physiological tissue regeneration and inhibits wound healing. Conversely, in a human acute dermatitis model, topical application of a Lawsone-containing cream ameliorates skin irritation. Altogether, our study reveals how a widely used natural plant pigment is sensed by the host receptor AhR, and how the physiopathological context determines beneficial and detrimental outcomes.

Mass-spectrometric identification of a novel angiotensin peptide in human plasma.

OBJECTIVE: Angiotensin peptides play a central role in cardiovascular physiology and pathology. Among these peptides, angiotensin II (Ang II) has been investigated most intensively. However, further angiotensin peptides such as Ang 1-7, Ang III, and Ang IV also contribute to vascular regulation, and may elicit additional, different, or even opposite effects to Ang II. Here, we describe a novel Ang II-related, strong vasoconstrictive substance in plasma from healthy humans and end-stage renal failure patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chromatographic purification and structural analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight/time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) revealed an angiotensin octapeptide with the sequence Ala-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe, which differs from Ang II in Ala1 instead of Asp1. Des[Asp1]-[Ala1]-Ang II, in the following named Angiotensin A (Ang A), is most likely generated enzymatically. In the presence of mononuclear leukocytes, Ang II is converted to Ang A by decarboxylation of Asp1. Ang A has the same affinity to the AT1 receptor as Ang II, but a higher affinity to the AT2 receptor. In the isolated perfused rat kidney, Ang A revealed a smaller vasoconstrictive effect than Ang II, which was not modified in the presence of the AT2 receptor antagonist PD 123319, suggesting a lower intrinsic activity at the AT1 receptor. Ang II and Ang A concentrations in plasma of healthy subjects and end-stage renal failure patients were determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation mass-analysis, because conventional enzyme immunoassay for Ang II quantification did not distinguish between Ang II and Ang A. In healthy subjects, Ang A concentrations were less than 20% of the Ang II concentrations, but the ratio Ang A/Ang II was higher in end-stage renal failure patients. CONCLUSIONS: Ang A is a novel human strong vasoconstrictive angiotensin-derived peptide, most likely generated by enzymatic transformation through mononuclear leukocyte-derived aspartate decarboxylase. Plasma Ang A concentration is increased in end-stage renal failure. Because of its stronger agonism at the AT2 receptor, Ang A may modulate the harmful effects of Ang II.

Endothelin potentiates TRPV1 via ETA receptor-mediated activation of protein kinase C.

BACKGROUND: Endothelin-1 (ET-1) both stimulates nociceptors and sensitizes them to noxious stimuli, an effect probably mediated by the ETA receptor (ETAR) expressed in sensory neurons. The cellular mechanisms of this ET-1-mediated effect are only poorly understood. TRPV1, the heat-, pH- and capsaicin-sensitive cation channel already known to be modulated by a number of cellular mediators released in response to noxious stimuli and during inflammation, is a potential target for the action of ET-1. RESULTS: We studied the effects of ET-1 on TRPV1 in sensory neurons from the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and in HEK293 cells coexpressing TRPV1 and the ETAR. Specific 125I-ET-1 binding sites (817 +/- 92 fmol/mg) were detected in membrane preparations of DRG with an ETAR/ETBR ratio of 60:40. In an immunofluorescence analysis, coexpression of TRPV1 and the ETAR was found in a subpopulation of primary sensory neurons. ET-1 strongly potentiated capsaicin-induced TRPV1 currents in some neurons, and in HEK293 cells co-expressing TRPV1 and the ETAR. Weaker potentiation was observed in HEK293 cells coexpressing TRPV1 and the ETBR. ETAR activation also increased responses to low pH and heat. In HEK293 cells, strong potentiation of TRPV1 like that induced by ET-1 via the ETAR could be induced by PKC activation, but not with activators of the adenylyl cyclase or the PKA pathway. Furthermore, inhibition of PKC with bisindolylmaleimide X (BIM X) or mutation of the PKC phosphorylation site S800 completely prevented ETAR-mediated potentiation. CONCLUSION: We conclude that ET-1 potentiates TRPV1 by a PKC-dependent mechanism and that this could play a major role in the algogenic and hyperalgesic effects of ET-1 described in previous studies.