Tonic and tonic-clonic seizures in the first year of life: Insights from electrographic features.

OBJECTIVE: We studied the electrographic features of tonic seizures (TS) with bilateral contraction and tonic-clonic seizures (TCS) without focal signs occurring during the first year of life to evaluate if there is a correlation with outcome. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed patients aged 1 to 12 months with at least one TS or TCS recorded with video-EEG between 2011 and 2021 in our Epilepsy Monitoring Unit. We analyzed the following electrographic features: seizure duration, presence and duration of focal ictal EEG onset, and post-ictal generalized EEG suppression (PGES). Among clinical variables, we collected age at epilepsy onset, age at TS and TCS recording, response to anti-seizure medications, genetic and neuroimaging findings, epileptic syndrome classification. RESULTS: Overall, we recorded 2577 seizures in 1769 patients. One-hundred-twenty-eight seizures (5%) were clinically labeled either as TS or TCS in 41 patients (2%). Out of 41 patients, 17 (41%) presented with TS, and 24 (59%) with TCS. Thirteen patients (32%) had a Self-limited Epilepsy, and 28 (68%) a Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathy (DEE). Seventy-two percent of genetically tested patients had pathogenic gene variants. None had structural epilepsy. Mean age at epilepsy onset was 4.48 months (range 3 days-12 months). Age at seizure onset was earlier in patients presenting with TS versus patients presenting with TCS (2.31 months vs. 6.01 months; p = 0.001) and in DEEs versus Self-limited Epilepsies (3.23 months vs. 7.16 months; p = 0.001). TS were exclusively present in DEEs (p = 0.001), and TCS were recorded in both DEEs and Self-limited Epilepsies. Focal ictal EEG onset was evident in 92 % of TCS, and in none of TS. Generalized ictal EEG onset was documented in 100 % of TS, and in 8 % of TCS. Focal ictal EEG onset occurred more frequently (100 % vs. 32 %; p = 0.000) and was significantly longer (30.61 s vs. 16.22 s; p = 0.020) in Self-limited Epilepsies versus DEEs. PGES was observed in 18 out of 41 (44 %) and was more frequent in Self-limited Epilepsies (p = 0.026). SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides insights into the electroclinical features of TS and TCS in infants that may help distinguish Self-limited Epilepsies from DEEs soon after epilepsy onset.

A Case of CDKL5 Deficiency Due to an X Chromosome Pericentric Inversion: Delineation of Structural Rearrangements as an Overlooked Recurrent Pathological Mechanism.

CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD) is an X-linked dominant epileptic encephalopathy, characterized by early-onset and drug-resistant seizures, psychomotor delay, and slight facial features. Genomic variants inactivating CDKL5 or impairing its protein product kinase activity have been reported, making next-generation sequencing (NGS) and chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) the standard diagnostic tests. We report a suspicious case of CDD in a female child who tested negative upon NGS and CMA and harbored an X chromosome de novo pericentric inversion. The use of recently developed genomic techniques (optical genome mapping and whole-genome sequencing) allowed us to finely characterize the breakpoints, with one of them interrupting CDKL5 at intron 1. This is the fifth case of CDD reported in the scientific literature harboring a structural rearrangement on the X chromosome, providing evidence for the hypothesis that this type of anomaly can represent a recurrent pathogenic mechanism, whose frequency is likely underestimated, with it being overlooked by standard techniques. The identification of the molecular etiology of the disorder is extremely important in evaluating the pathological outcome and to better investigate the mechanisms associated with drug resistance, paving the way for the development of specific therapies. Karyotype and genomic techniques should be considered in all cases presenting with CDD without molecular confirmation.

Epilepsy in KBG syndrome.

AIM: To illustrate the epileptological and electroencephalographic (EEG) characteristics of a cohort of patients with KBG syndrome and epilepsy. METHOD: Clinical history, age at epilepsy onset, seizure types, EEG findings, duration of epilepsy, and response to therapies were retrospectively reviewed in 11 patients (three females, eight males) with KBG syndrome. RESULTS: All detected genetic mutations were pathogenic and affected the C-terminal region at exon 9 of ANKRD11. One patient had 16q24.3 microdeletion including the ANKRD11 gene. Mean age at onset was 67 months. Epilepsy type was focal in five patients and generalized in four. Two patients had developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. Seizure freedom was obtained after a period varying between 15 days and 6 years. INTERPRETATION: In our patients, epilepsy appeared to respond well to treatment and, in some cases, to be self-limiting. The molecular characteristics of our patients' genetic abnormalities did not point towards any specific epilepsy hot spot. Epilepsy should be considered in the diagnostic work-up of patients with KBG syndrome. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Some of the epilepsy types of KBG syndrome appear to be self-remitting. The epilepsy phenotypes associated with KBG syndrome are quite variable.

Epileptic phenotypes in autoimmune encephalitis: from acute symptomatic seizures to autoimmune-associated epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical and paraclinical findings, treatment options and long-term outcomes in autoimmune encephalitis (AE), with a close look to epilepsy. METHODS: In this retrospective observational cohort study, we enrolled patients with new-onset seizures in the context of AE. We compared clinical and paraclinical findings in patients with and without evidence of antibodies. RESULTS: Overall, 263 patients (138 females; median age 55 years, range 4-86) were followed up for a median time of 30 months (range 12-120). Antineuronal antibodies were detected in 63.50%.Antibody-positive patients had multiple seizure types (p=0.01) and prevalent involvement of temporal regions (p=0.02). A higher prevalence of episodes of SE was found in the antibody-negative group (p<0.001).Immunotherapy was prescribed in 88.60%, and effective in 61.80%. Independent predictors of favourable outcome of the AE were early immunotherapy (p<0.001) and the detection of antineuronal surface antibodies (p=0.01).Autoimmune-associated epilepsy was the long-term sequela in 43.73%, associated with cognitive and psychiatric disturbances in 81.73%. Independent predictors of developing epilepsy were difficult to treat seizures at onset (p=0.04), a high number of antiseizure medications (p<0.001), persisting interictal epileptiform discharges at follow-up (p<0.001) and poor response to immunotherapy during the acute phase (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The recognition of seizures secondary to AE represents a rare chance for aetiology-driven seizures management. Early recognition and treatment at the pathogenic level may reduce the risk of long-term irreversible sequelae. However, the severity of seizures at onset is the major risk factor for the development of chronic epilepsy.This study provides class IV evidence for management recommendations.

Inflammation in pediatric epilepsies: Update on clinical features and treatment options.

The role of inflammation is increasingly recognized in triggering or sustaining epileptic activity. In the last decades, increasing research has provided definite evidence to support the link between immunity, inflammatory process, and epilepsy. Neuro- and systemic inflammation play a pivotal role in driving epileptogenesis through different pathogenetic mechanisms: the activation of innate immunity in glia, neurons, and microvasculature, the brain mediated by blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment, and the imbalance of pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules produced by both arms of immunity. More recently, research has focused on the adverse effects of maternal or early-life immune activation and cytokine imbalance on fetal neurodevelopment and postnatal epilepsy. A complex crosstalk between the immune and nervous system, and a crucial interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors may influence structures and functions of the developing brain. A better understanding of the inflammatory process in promoting epilepsy implies that targeting specific pathways may be effective in seizure control. Multiple targets have been identified so far, and several antiseizure interventions are obtained by inhibiting inflammatory signaling or protecting/restoring BBB. All this evidence has changed the field of epilepsy research and neuropharmacology. Further developments and new treatments will rapidly emerge to improve seizure management in inflammation-related epilepsies. This article is part of the Special Issue "Severe Infantile Epilepsies".

Three different scenarios for epileptic spasms.

Epileptic Spasms (ES) is a type of seizure usually occurring in the context of a severe childhood epileptic syndrome associated to significant Electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities. There are three scenarios in which ES may occur. The first one is represented by West Syndrome (WS): ES occur in a previously non encephalopathic infant in association with the development of a hypsarrhythmic EEG pattern. In most cases, standard treatment with Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), steroids or vigabatrin leads to a reversal of the electroclinical picture. The second scenario is represented by Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies (DEEs): ES are documented, often along other seizures types, in an infant who often shows developmental delay since birth; the EEG pattern is pathological both in wakefulness and in sleep, without typical features of hypsarrhythmia; therapies (with the exception of few potentially treatable syndromes) are poorly effective. The last scenario is represented by ES in the context of Focal Epilepsies (FEs): ES, sometimes showing focal signs or closely related to focal seizures, are associated with focal brain lesions. Treatment with ACTH, steroids or vigabatrin may not be effective as well as antiepileptic drugs for focal epilepsies. In drug-resistant patients, surgery should be considered. Although there are some gaps in our current scientific knowledge concerning the peculiar electroclinical and physiopathological features of ES, we nowadays possess the necessary tools to correctly frame this unique seizure type into one of these scenarios and therefore properly manage the diagnostic and therapeutic workup.

Clinical-genetic features and peculiar muscle histopathology in infantile DNM1L-related mitochondrial epileptic encephalopathy.

Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles, undergoing continuous fission and fusion. The DNM1L (dynamin-1 like) gene encodes for the DRP1 protein, an evolutionary conserved member of the dynamin family, responsible for fission of mitochondria, and having a role in the division of peroxisomes, as well. DRP1 impairment is implicated in several neurological disorders and associated with either de novo dominant or compound heterozygous mutations. In five patients presenting with severe epileptic encephalopathy, we identified five de novo dominant DNM1L variants, the pathogenicity of which was validated in a yeast model. Fluorescence microscopy revealed abnormally elongated mitochondria and aberrant peroxisomes in mutant fibroblasts, indicating impaired fission of these organelles. Moreover, a very peculiar finding in our cohort of patients was the presence, in muscle biopsy, of core like areas with oxidative enzyme alterations, suggesting an abnormal distribution of mitochondria in the muscle tissue.

Pediatric status epilepticus: Identification of prognostic factors using the new ILAE classification after 5 years of follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: Status epilepticus (SE) is the most common neurologic emergency in childhood. This study aimed to report on a large cohort of pediatric patients with SE, applying the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) Classification for SE to identify prognostic factors. METHODS: We included 173 children treated at "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital in Rome for SE exceeding 30 minutes (mean age 4.43 ± 4.93 years old, median 2.28, interquartile range [IQR] 0.41-7.32; follow-up for a mean of 4.9 ± 3.4 years, median 8.75, IQR 4,58-12.63). A multivariate model was constructed to predict neurocognitive outcome, recurrence of SE, development of epilepsy, and mortality. Adjusted odds ratios [ORs] were calculated with 95% confidence interval (OR, 95% CIs). RESULTS: We observed a different prevalence of etiologies for the different semiologies (P < .05) and for each age group (P < .05), overlapping only in part with the recent ILAE classification. After SE, patients showed 69.9% epilepsy (drug-resistant in half of them), 23.1% worsening of neurologic findings on examination, 28.9% cognitive deficit, and 28.3% recurrent SE. At multivariate analysis: superrefractory SE was correlated to an increased risk of developing cognitive (OR 6.00, 95% CI 2.09, 17.31) or neurologic sequelae (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.75, 19.77). A similar finding was observed for patients with onset in the neonatal period for cognitive (OR 4.84, 95% CI 1.13, 17.3) and neurologic sequelae (OR 9.03, 95% CI 2.40, 34.04). Recurrence of SE was associated with unknown etiology (OR 6.15, 95% CI 1.43, 26.76), and myoclonic semiology (OR 6.1, 95% CI 1.23, 29.3). Patients with acute symptomatic etiology (OR 0.12, 95% CI 0.04, 0.40) had a lower risk for developing epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE: Age at onset and duration of SE were critical independent variables associated with worse neurocognitive outcome. The risk of developing epilepsy was lower after acute symptomatic and febrile SE. Semiology and age at onset correlate with etiology of SE. For this reason, ILAE classification with respect to four axes seems an appropriate advancement.

Generalized tonic seizures with autonomic signs are the hallmark of SCN8A developmental and epileptic encephalopathy.

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE) due to SCN8A gene variants is characterized by drug-resistant early onset epilepsy associated with severe intellectual disability. Different seizure types have been reported, and a sequence of autonomic manifestations such as brady-/tachycardia, irregular breathing, and cyanosis. Nevertheless, an exhaustive video-polygraphic documentation is still lacking. In this study, we reviewed the ictal electroencephalograms (EEGs) of five patients with SCN8A-DEE followed-up at the Neuroscience Department at Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital in Rome. We identified generalized tonic seizure as the major seizure type at epilepsy onset. Seizure severity could vary from subtle to marked clinical manifestations, depending from the extent and groups of muscles involved and association with autonomic modifications. We found autonomic signs in 80% of seizures in our cases, and we were able to identify a stereotyped sequence of ictal events for most of seizures. Autonomic signs occurred in rapid sequence: flushing of the face, sometimes associated with sialorrhea, bradycardia, and hypopnea appeared within the first 1-2 s. Tachycardia, polypnea, perioral cyanosis, and pallor occurred later in the course of the seizure. Generalized tonic seizures are rarely described in other genetic epileptic conditions of early infancy because of ion channel mutations, such as in DEE due to KCNQ2 or SCN2A gene mutations, where seizures are most frequently reported as focal to bilateral tonic. Therefore, generalized symmetric tonic seizures with autonomic signs can be considered a clinical hallmark for diagnosis of SCN8A-related DEE and relevant for therapeutic implications.

Defining the electroclinical phenotype and outcome of PCDH19-related epilepsy: A multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: PCDH19-related epilepsy is an epileptic syndrome with infantile onset, characterized by clustered and fever-induced seizures, often associated with intellectual disability (ID) and autistic features. The aim of this study was to analyze a large cohort of patients with PCDH19-related epilepsy and better define the epileptic phenotype, genotype-phenotype correlations, and related outcome-predicting factors. METHODS: We retrospectively collected genetic, clinical, and electroencephalogram (EEG) data of 61 patients with PCDH19-related epilepsy followed at 15 epilepsy centers. All consecutively performed EEGs were analyzed, totaling 551. We considered as outcome measures the development of ID, autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), and seizure persistence. The analyzed variables were the following: gender, age at onset, age at study, genetic variant, fever sensitivity, seizure type, cluster occurrence, status epilepticus, EEG abnormalities, and cognitive and behavioral disorders. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to evaluate the age at which seizures might decrease in frequency. RESULTS: At last follow-up (median = 12 years, range = 1.9-42.1 years), 48 patients (78.7%) had annual seizures/clusters, 13 patients (21.3%) had monthly to weekly seizures, and 12 patients (19.7%) were seizure-free for ≥2 years. Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed a significant decrease of seizure frequency after the age of 10.5 years (sensitivity = 81.0%, specificity = 70.0%). Thirty-six patients (59.0%) had ID and behavioral disturbances. ASD was present in 31 patients. An earlier age at epilepsy onset emerged as the only predictive factor for ID (P = 0.047) and ASD (P = 0.014). Conversely, age at onset was not a predictive factor for seizure outcome (P = 0.124). SIGNIFICANCE: We found that earlier age at epilepsy onset is related to a significant risk for ID and ASD. Furthermore, long-term follow-up showed that after the age of 10 years, seizures decrease in frequency and cognitive and behavioral disturbances remain the primary clinical problems.

PCDH19-related epilepsy in two mosaic male patients.

PCDH19 gene mutations have been recently associated with an epileptic syndrome characterized by focal and generalized seizures. The PCDH19 gene (Xq22.1) has an unusual X-linked inheritance with a selective involvement for female subjects. A cellular interference mechanism has been hypothesized and male patients can manifest epilepsy only in the case of a mosaicism. So far about 100 female patients, and only one symptomatic male have been described. Using targeted next generation sequencing (NGS) approach we found a PCDH19 point mutation in two male patients with a clinical picture suggestive of PCDH19-related epilepsy. The system allowed us to verify that the two c.1352 C>T; p.(Pro451Leu) and c.918C>G; p.(Tyr306*) variants occurred in mosaic status. Mutations were confirmed by Sanger sequencing and quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Up to now, the traditional molecular screening for PCDH19-related epilepsy has been targeted to all females with early onset epilepsy with or without cognitive impairment. Male patients were generally excluded. We describe for the first time two mosaic PCDH19 point mutations in two male patients with a clinical picture suggestive of PCDH19-related epilepsy. This finding opens new opportunities for the molecular diagnoses in patients with a peculiar type of epilepsy that remains undiagnosed in male patients.

Symptomatic and presumed symptomatic focal epilepsies in childhood: An observational, prospective multicentre study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical, neuropsychological, and psychopathologic features of a cohort of children with a new diagnosis of symptomatic or presumed symptomatic focal epilepsy at time of recruitment and through the first month. The selected population will be followed for 2-5 years after enrollment to investigate the epilepsy course and identify early predictors of drug resistance. METHODS: In this observational, multicenter, nationwide study, children (age 1 month-12.9 years) with a new diagnosis of symptomatic or presumed symptomatic focal epilepsy were consecutively enrolled in 15 Italian tertiary childhood epilepsy centers. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) diagnosis of symptomatic focal epilepsy due to acquired and developmental etiologies, and presumed symptomatic focal epilepsy; (2) age at diagnosis older than 1 month and <13 years; and (3) written informed consent. Children were subdivided into three groups: ≤3 years, >3 to 6 years, and >6 years. Clinical, electroencephalography (EEG), neuroimaging, and neuropsychological variables were identified for statistical analyses. RESULTS: Two hundred fifty-nine children were enrolled (116 female and 143 male). Median age: 4.4 years (range 1 month-12.9 years); 46.0% (n = 119) of children were younger than 3 years, 24% (61) from 3 to 6 years of age, and 30% (79) older than 6 years. Neurologic examination findings were normal in 71.8%. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was abnormal in 59.9%. Children age ≤3 years experienced the highest seizure frequency in the first month after recruitment (p < 0.0001). Monotherapy in the first month was used in 67.2%. Cognitive tests at baseline revealed abnormal scores in 30%; behavioral problems were present in 21%. At multivariate analysis, higher chances to exhibit more than five seizures in the first month after epilepsy onset was confirmed for younger children and those with temporal lobe epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE: In this prospective cohort study, an extensive characterization of epilepsy onset in children with symptomatic or presumed symptomatic focal epilepsies is reported in relation to the age group and the localization of the epileptogenic zone.

Genetic testing in benign familial epilepsies of the first year of life: clinical and diagnostic significance.

PURPOSE: To dissect the genetics of benign familial epilepsies of the first year of life and to assess the extent of the genetic overlap between benign familial neonatal seizures (BFNS), benign familial neonatal-infantile seizures (BFNIS), and benign familial infantile seizures (BFIS). METHODS: Families with at least two first-degree relatives affected by focal seizures starting within the first year of life and normal development before seizure onset were included. Families were classified as BFNS when all family members experienced neonatal seizures, BFNIS when the onset of seizures in family members was between 1 and 4 months of age or showed both neonatal and infantile seizures, and BFIS when the onset of seizures was after 4 months of age in all family members. SCN2A, KCNQ2, KCNQ3, PPRT2 point mutations were analyzed by direct sequencing of amplified genomic DNA. Genomic deletions involving KCNQ2 and KCNQ3 were analyzed by multiple-dependent probe amplification method. KEY FINDINGS: A total of 46 families including 165 affected members were collected. Eight families were classified as BFNS, 9 as BFNIS, and 29 as BFIS. Genetic analysis led to the identification of 41 mutations, 14 affecting KCNQ2, 1 affecting KCNQ3, 5 affecting SCN2A, and 21 affecting PRRT2. The detection rate of mutations in the entire cohort was 89%. In BFNS, mutations specifically involve KCNQ2. In BFNIS two genes are involved (KCNQ2, six families; SCN2A, two families). BFIS families are the most genetically heterogeneous, with all four genes involved, although about 70% of them carry a PRRT2 mutation. SIGNIFICANCE: Our data highlight the important role of KCNQ2 in the entire spectrum of disorders, although progressively decreasing as the age of onset advances. The occurrence of afebrile seizures during follow-up is associated with KCNQ2 mutations and may represent a predictive factor. In addition, we showed that KCNQ3 mutations might be also involved in families with infantile seizures. Taken together our data indicate an important role of K-channel genes beyond the typical neonatal epilepsies. The identification of a novel SCN2A mutation in a family with infantile seizures with onset between 6 and 8 months provides further confirmation that this gene is not specifically associated with BFNIS and is also involved in families with a delayed age of onset. Our data indicate that PRRT2 mutations are clustered in families with BFIS. Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia emerges as a distinctive feature of PRRT2 families, although uncommon in our series. We showed that the age of onset of seizures is significantly correlated with underlying genetics, as about 90% of the typical BFNS families are linked to KCNQ2 compared to only 3% of the BFIS families, for which PRRT2 represents the major gene.

Video/EEG findings in a KCNQ2 epileptic encephalopathy: a case report and revision of literature data.

We describe the EEG findings of an infant with early-onset epileptic encephalopathy with mutation of the KCNQ2 gene and a family history of neonatal seizures. The infant presented with multifocal drug-resistant seizures with onset during the third day of life. Family history was positive for early-onset neonatal seizures. Metabolic screening and neuroimaging were negative. Direct sequencing of KCQN2 from both the mother and child revealed a heterozygous cytosine-to-guanine mutation (Dedek et al., 2003). Interictal EEG showed a very discontinuous pattern which evolved towards a defined burst-suppression pattern during sleep and a multifocal, random, attenuation pattern during wakefulness. Focal, tonic seizures with head deviation, sometimes followed by asynchronous and asymmetrical clonic jerks, eyelid myoclonias, and polypnoea, were recorded. Ictal EEG was characterised by focal, low-voltage, fast activity, followed by recruiting theta rhythms and bilateral, focal, spike-wave complexes, alternatively localised to one hemisphere and subsequently diffusing to the other. ACTH therapy was introduced, resulting in a significant improvement in EEG activity and gradual reduction in seizure frequency, with cessation at age 13 weeks. [Published with video sequences].

Epilepsy in ring 14 chromosome syndrome.

Ring chromosome 14 [r(14)] is a rare disorder. The aim of this study was to describe two new cases of r(14) drug-resistant epilepsy, and, through an extensive review of literature, highlight those epileptological features which are more commonly found and which may help in early diagnosis, genetic counseling, and treatment. Epilepsy onset in r(14) syndrome takes place during the first year of life; seizures are generalized or focal and less frequently myoclonic. Seizures might be induced by fever. Focal seizures are characterized by staring, eye or head deviation, respiratory arrest, swallowing, and hypertonia/hypotonia or clonic movements. Ictal EEG might show both focal and diffuse discharges. Interictal EEG reveals mainly focal abnormalities. Mental retardation represents a constant feature. Neurological assessment yields a delay in motor skill acquisition and less frequently both pyramidal and cerebellar signs. Dysmorphic features are evident in the majority of cases. Epilepsy associated with r(14) has many features that entail a challenging diagnostic process. The reported cases of r(14)-related epilepsy seem to highlight a series of common elements which may be helpful in pointing the clinician towards a correct diagnosis.

Neonatal hemifacial spasm and fourth ventricle mass.

Congential hemifacial spasm is a rare condition that is characterized by the occurrence of paroxysmal hemifacial contractions in neonates. We review the clinical, neurophysiological, neuroimaging, and histopathological findings, as well as the differential diagnosis, therapeutic approach, and outcome of all the described cases. Moreover, we report two new cases including the ictal video-electroencephalography recordings. Hemifacial spasm starts early in life, and is characterized by unilateral, involuntary, irregular tonic or clonic contractions of muscles innervated by the seventh cranial nerve. Hemifacial spasm is associated with eyelid blinking, and sometimes with breathing irregularities, hyperventilation, and/or other neurological manifestations (dystonic movements, nystagmus). Interictal and ictal video-electroencephalography did not reveal epileptiform abnormalities. In all cases, brain magnetic resonance imaging showed a mass involving the cerebellar peduncle, the cerebellar hemisphere, or the floor of the fourth ventricle. The semiology of the paroxysmal attacks is probably due to the activation of cranial nerve nuclei through intralesional hypersynchronous discharges, as shown by the intraoperative recordings and functional brain imaging described in the literature. We point out the importance of identifying such seizures in order to make an early diagnosis of the underlying cerebral lesion.

Super-refractory status epilepticus (SRSE): A case series of 22 pediatric patients.

BACKGROUND: Super-refractory Status Epilepticus (SRSE) is a rare condition in which SE persists or recurs ≥24 h after the onset of anesthesia. Although its characteristics are well defined in adulthood, only few studies on children are available. METHODS: we retrospectively analyzed the population of patients with SRSE aged <18 years treated in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit of the Bambino Gesù Pediatric Hospital. We assessed clinical history, etiology, neuroimaging, electro-clinical features of SRSE, treatments and neurological status after SRSE cessation. RESULTS: We identified 22 children with median age at SRSE onset of 3.1 years (IQR 1.3-7.3) and SRSE duration of 22.0 days (IQR 11.2-30.5) Before SRSE, 17 patients (77.3%) had an abnormal neurological examination, 18 (81.8%) had a diagnosis of epilepsy, 8 of which already presented an episode of SE. Only 4 patients (18.2%) had New Onset SRSE. Eleven patients had a progressive etiology (PE), 9 had a remote etiology (RE) and 2 patients had an acute etiology (AE). Amongst PE the most frequent etiologies were mitochondrial diseases, while among RE they were Developmental Epileptic Encephalopathies of genetic origin. Time to SRSE cessation was significantly longer in PE (p = 0.04). After SRSE, 8 patients, (7 with PE) showed a significant worsening of neurological status. In this group, mean time at SE cessation was significantly longer (p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: pediatric SRSE is mostly associated with progressive diseases and remote etiologies. Underlying etiology seems to impact both on SRSE duration and subsequent neurological evolution, however more studies are needed to confirm these findings.

KETASER01 protocol: What went right and what went wrong.

OBJECTIVE: To discuss the results of the KETASER01 trial and the reasons for its failure, particularly in view of future studies. METHODS: KETASER01 is a multicenter, randomized, controlled, open-label, sequentially designed, non-profit Italian study that aimed to assess the efficacy of ketamine compared with conventional anesthetics in the treatment of refractory convulsive status epilepticus (RCSE) in children. RESULTS: During the 5-year recruitment phase, a total of 76 RCSEs treated with third-line therapy were observed in five of the 10 participating Centers; only 10 individuals (five for each study arm; five females, mean age 6.5 ± 6.3 years) were enrolled in the KETASER01 study. Two of the five patients (40%) in the experimental arm were successfully treated with ketamine and two of the five (40%) children in the control arm, where successfully treated with thiopental. In the remaining six (60%) enrolled patients, RCSE was not controlled by the randomized anesthetic(s). SIGNIFICANCE: The KETASER01 study was prematurely halted due to low eligibility of patients and no successful recruitment. No conclusions can be drawn regarding the objectives of the study. Here, we discuss the KETASER01 results and critically analyze the reasons for its failure in view of future trials.

Acute-onset epilepsy triggered by fever mimicking FIRES (febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome): the role of protocadherin 19 (PCDH19) gene mutation.

To report differences and similarities between febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES) and epilepsy in female patients with protocadherin 19 (PCDH19) mutation. These are two recently described epileptic conditions characterized by drug-resistant epilepsy and cognitive impairment. We report, as exemplification, one of our patients with acute-onset epilepsy triggered by fever with clinical course resembling FIRES, but with a missense mutation of PCDH19 gene. The clinical characteristics of this patient are similar to those reported for FIRES. We believe that female patients with febrile acute-onset epilepsy resembling FIRES are potential PCDH19 mutation carriers.