On the early uses of the word 'gout': novel evidence and a critical assessment of the published literature.

Recognized since antiquity, gout is still a relevant pathology with rising prevalence and incidence. This study aims to assess the reference accuracy in journal articles mentioning the early use of the word 'gout'. Specifically, it investigates whether the term was indeed coined in the 13th century by the Dominican monk Randolphus of Bocking, as widely believed. Several historical sources in their original Latin were consulted to test the hypothesis of literary mentions predating Randolphus of Bocking's description. At the same time, biomedical articles spanning the last two decades were perused using specific keywords in different combinations to determine the accuracy level of references related to the earliest use of the word 'gout'. The results showed that several biomedical publications wrongly ascribed the origin of the word 'gout' to Randolphus of Bocking. Indeed, various texts predate his mention by many years. In particular, gutta, the Latin word used to indicate a host of rheumatological conditions including gout, is recorded as early as the 10th century in a biography dedicated to the martyred nun Saint Wiborada of St. Gall. Written by Swiss monks between AD 960 and 963, this text should be regarded as containing the earliest known adoption of the word. For this reason, scholars should now avoid quoting Randolph of Bocking's description as the first use of the word 'gout' in Western literature.

3D facial approximation and endocast analysis of the Mummy of Minirdis (Ancient Egypt, ca. 2,300 Before Present).

The present article offers the facial approximation of the mummy of the ancient Egyptian adolescent named Minirdis (ca. 2300 years BP) by means of anatomical analysis of video-images and through a facial approximation protocol implemented on more historical personages. An evaluation of the mummy's endocast is also offered. A potential diagnosis of Sotos syndrome is cautiously considered but its inherent limitations are detailed. Finally, the methodology is presented as a valuable tool both for bio-historical research and for further studies on normal and pathologic morphologies of the cranio-facial district.

Votive Offerings from Floresti Orthodox Monastery in Romania: An Ophthalmological Lesson from the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries CE.

Since Antiquity, votive offerings were deposited in temples dedicated to deities in order to fulfil a special request of a supplicant. Later, in Orthodox churches, votive offerings entered in the form of anatomical ex-voto or tamata, metallic effigies that realistically represented the disease-affected portion of the body. In this paper, we show four tamata from eighteenth-nineteenth century identified in the museum of the Orthodox monastery of Floresti (Romania); votive offerings that represent ocular pathologies. Even if the supplicants did not have a medical background and often did not fully understand their diseases, the votive offerings demonstrate their ability to observe pathological changes, at the same time emphasising the importance of their faith in the healing process.

Chronic Gastro-Duodenal Ulcerative Disease and the Death of Father Stephan Schätzl from Viechtwang (Austria).

Stephan Schätzl was the parish priest of Viechtwang, Upper Austria. He lived in the aftermath of the Peace of Augsburg in a period of schism between Roman Catholics and Lutherans. His portrait, depicted only 6 days before his demise in 1590, shows that he had extreme ante mortem cachexia. Documentary sources detailed his life and ill-health and it is proposed that he had chronic gastro-duodenal ulcerative disease which ultimately led his to death.

Pandemic realism as the indispensable political precondition for global disease eradication.

This article examines the politico-scientific mechanism, which leads nations to declare an epidemic or a pandemic finished, irrespective of the actual epidemiological situation at a given time. A historical comparison is made with the famous behavior of Emperor Justinian I (482-565 CE) during the plague pandemic named after him (part of the first plague pandemic). Finally, a reference to the importance of the multidisciplinary study of the history of medicine and the intersection between pandemics and wars is made.

Vaccine hesitancy, misinformation in the era of Covid-19: Lessons from the past.

Background: As the world has challenged/argued with the Covid-19 pandemic over the last two years, there has been an increase in vaccine misinformation. Although immunity against Covid-19 infection is limited to 4-6 months and requires at least three doses of vaccine to be maximally effective, the current vaccination campaign in industrialized countries shows that vaccinated citizens experience greater immunological protection against severe forms of the disease than unvaccinated citizens. Methodology: A perusal of the literature was performed in order to reconstruct the communication methods applied in the managing of the Covid-19 pandemic; the management of the current pandemic was compared with the management of another scourge of the past: poliomyelitis. Results/Discussion: In order to raise public awareness on public health issues, it is essential that governments and institutions communicate scientific data to all sections of the population in an unambiguous way. In this sense, it is essential to apply "prebunking", which is a layered defense system available to society that prevents misinformation before it is spread. This is to avoid the subsequent debunking of false information, which generates insecurity and fuels fears. Belief in medical misinformation represents a meaningful problem for public health efforts to fight Covid-19 through vaccination. Conclusion/Perspectives: In this sense an example of proper management of one of the many epidemics of the recent past, poliomyelitis, should make us reflect on the effectiveness of past approaches. This testimony from the past can provide us with food for thought regarding how to face the present Covid-19 pandemic and to prepare for the future. Certainly, it shows us how the awful pandemics/epidemics from the past was handled and finally overcome, despite perceived risk and vaccine hesitancy.