Recombinant human interleukin-7 (CYT107) promotes T-cell recovery after allogeneic stem cell transplantation.

Delays in immune recovery after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) are associated with increased risks of infection and relapse. IL-7 has a central role in T-cell development and survival and enhances immune recovery in murine models of allo-HSCT. We performed a phase 1 trial of r-hIL-7 (CYT107) in recipients of T-cell depleted allo-HSCTs. Twelve patients were treated with escalating doses of r-hIL-7 administered weekly for 3 weeks. The study drug was well tolerated with only one patient developing acute skin GVHD. At baseline, patients were profoundly lymphopenic. CYT107 induced a doubling in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. The main effect of IL-7 was an expansion of effector memory T cells, the predominant subset identified in our patients. There was no significant effect on CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) T cells, NK, or B cells. Importantly, we not only saw quantitative increases in T cells after a short course of IL-7 but also demonstrated an increase in functional T cells, including viral-specific T cells that recognize CMV. Enhanced TCR diversity was also observed after treatment. Our results indicate that r-hIL-7 can enhance immune recovery after a T cell-depleted allo-HSCT without causing significant GVHD or other serious toxicity (www.clinicaltrials.gov; NCT00684008).

Integrated NY-ESO-1 antibody and CD8+ T-cell responses correlate with clinical benefit in advanced melanoma patients treated with ipilimumab.

Ipilimumab, a monoclonal antibody against cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), has been shown to improve survival in patients with advanced metastatic melanoma. It also enhances immunity to NY-ESO-1, a cancer/testis antigen expressed in a subset of patients with melanoma. To characterize the association between immune response and clinical outcome, we first analyzed NY-ESO-1 serum antibody by ELISA in 144 ipilimumab-treated patients with melanoma and found 22 of 140 (16%) seropositive at baseline and 31 of 144 (22%) seropositive following treatment. These NY-ESO-1-seropositive patients had a greater likelihood of experiencing clinical benefit 24 wk after ipilimumab treatment than NY-ESO-1-seronegative patients (P = 0.02, relative risk = 1.8, two-tailed Fisher test). To understand why some patients with NY-ESO-1 antibody failed to experience clinical benefit, we analyzed NY-ESO-1-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses by intracellular multicytokine staining in 20 NY-ESO-1-seropositive patients and found a surprising dissociation between NY-ESO-1 antibody and CD8 responses in some patients. NY-ESO-1-seropositive patients with associated CD8(+) T cells experienced more frequent clinical benefit (10 of 13; 77%) than those with undetectable CD8(+) T-cell response (one of seven; 14%; P = 0.02; relative risk = 5.4, two-tailed Fisher test), as well as a significant survival advantage (P = 0.01; hazard ratio = 0.2, time-dependent Cox model). Together, our data suggest that integrated NY-ESO-1 immune responses may have predictive value for ipilimumab treatment and argue for prospective studies in patients with established NY-ESO-1 immunity. The current findings provide a strong rationale for the clinical use of modulators of immunosuppression with concurrent approaches to favor tumor antigen-specific immune responses, such as vaccines or adoptive transfer, in patients with cancer.

CTLA-4 blockade increases antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells in prevaccinated patients with melanoma: three cases.

BACKGROUND: Anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) antibodies, such as ipilimumab, have generated measurable immune responses to Melan-A, NY-ESO-1, and gp100 antigens in metastatic melanoma. Vaccination against such targets has potential for immunogenicity and may produce an effector-memory T-cell response. METHODS: To determine the effect of CTLA-4 blockade on antigen-specific responses following vaccination, in-depth immune monitoring was performed on three ipilimumab-treated patients prevaccinated with gp100 DNA (IMF-24), gp100(209-217) and tyrosinase peptides plus GM-CSF DNA (IMF-32), or NY-ESO-1 protein plus imiquimod (IMF-11); peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analyzed by tetramer and/or intracellular cytokine staining following 10-day culture with HLA-A*0201-restricted gp100(209-217) (ITDQVPFSV), tyrosinase(369-377) (YMDGTMSQV), or 20-mer NY-ESO-1 overlapping peptides, respectively. Tumors from IMF-32 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry to help elucidate mechanism(s) underlying tumor escape. RESULTS: Following vaccination, patients generated weak to no CD4(+) or CD8(+) T-cell response specific to the vaccine antigen but demonstrated increases in effector-memory (CCR7(lo)CD45RA(lo)) tetramer(+)CD8(+) T cells. After ipilimumab induction, patients experienced a robust, although sometimes transient, antigen-specific response for gp100 (IMF-32 and IMF-24) or NY-ESO-1 (IMF-11) and produced polyfunctional intracellular cytokines. Primary and metastatic tumors expressed tyrosinase but not gp100 or class I/II MHC molecules. CONCLUSION: Vaccination induced a measurable antigen-specific T-cell response that increased following CTLA-4 blockade, potentially "boosting" the vaccine-primed response. Tumor escape may be related to antigen loss or lack of MHC expression necessary for immune activity. These results in a limited number of patients support the need for further research into combining vaccination with ipilimumab and provide insight into mechanisms underlying tumor escape.

CTLA-4 blockade enhances polyfunctional NY-ESO-1 specific T cell responses in metastatic melanoma patients with clinical benefit.

Blockade of inhibitory signals mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) has been shown to enhance T cell responses and induce durable clinical responses in patients with metastatic melanoma. The functional impact of anti-CTLA-4 therapy on human immune responses is still unclear. To explore this, we analyzed immune-related adverse events and immune responses in metastatic melanoma patients treated with ipilimumab, a fully human anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody. Fifteen patients were selected on the basis of availability of suitable specimens for immunologic monitoring, and eight of these showed evidence of clinical benefit. Five of the eight patients with evidence of clinical benefit had NY-ESO-1 antibody, whereas none of seven clinical non-responders was seropositive for NY-ESO-1. All five NY-ESO-1 seropositive patients had clearly detectable CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells against NY-ESO-1 following treatment with ipilimumab. One NY-ESO-1 seronegative clinical responder also had a NY-ESO-1 CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell response, possibly related to prior vaccination with NY-ESO-1. Among five clinical non-responders analyzed, only one had a NY-ESO-1 CD4(+) T cell response and this patient did not have detectable anti-NY-ESO-1 antibody. Overall, NY-ESO-1-specific T cell responses increased in frequency and functionality during anti-CTLA-4 treatment, revealing a polyfunctional response pattern of IFN-gamma, MIP-1beta and TNF-alpha. We therefore suggest that CTLA-4 blockade enhanced NY-ESO-1 antigen-specific B cell and T cell immune responses in patients with durable objective clinical responses and stable disease. These data provide an immunologic rationale for the efficacy of anti-CTLA-4 therapy and call for immunotherapeutic designs that combine NY-ESO-1 vaccination with CTLA-4 blockade.

Correlation of clinical and immunological data in a metastatic melanoma patient with heterogeneous tumor responses to ipilimumab therapy.

Melanoma patients treated with anti-CTLA-4 have shown a range of anti-tumor responses. In this report, we describe the response of a single patient to anti-CTLA-4, with individual lesions disappearing, others stabilizing, and others progressing. These responses can be viewed as a clear manifestation of cancer immunoediting and its three phases of elimination, equilibrium and escape, with each tumor in this patient being at a discrete stage in the process. The patient's course and associated immunological monitoring and other laboratory data are presented in an immunogram, a way to visualize temporal associations between the multiple clinical and laboratory parameters.

Safety and immunogenicity of a human and mouse gp100 DNA vaccine in a phase I trial of patients with melanoma.

A differentiation antigen commonly expressed on melanoma cells, gp100 is the target of infiltrating T cells. We conducted a phase I randomized cross-over trial of melanoma patients with either xenogeneic (mouse) or human gp100 plasmid DNA injected intramuscularly at three dosages (100, 500 or 1,500 microg) every three weeks for three doses. After the first three injections, patients were then immunized three times with gp100 from the other species. Peripheral blood samples were analyzed at various time points following 10-day culture with gp100 peptides using multi-parametric flow cytometry. A total of 19 patients were enrolled, with 18 assessable for immune function and survival. 14 (74%) were male, with a median age of 56 years (range, 20-82). All patients had no evidence of disease; 10 (53%) had stage III disease, 3 each (16%) had stage IIB and IV disease, 2 (11%) had choroidal and 1 (5%) had anal mucosal involvement. With a median follow-up of 30 months, median progression-free survival (PFS) is 44 months. Median survival is not reached. There was no grade 3/4 toxicity; the most common grade 1/2 toxicity was an injection site reaction in 12 patients (63%, all grade 1). Five patients developed CD8+ cells binding gp100(280-288) HLA-A2-restricted tetramer. One patient had an increase in CD8+ IFN-gamma+ cells. This xenogeneic immunization strategy was safe and associated with minimal toxicity. There was also evidence of immune response.

Optimization and validation of a robust human T-cell culture method for monitoring phenotypic and polyfunctional antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Monitoring cellular immune responses is one prerequisite for the rational development of cancer vaccines. METHODS: We describe an extensive effort to optimize and validate quantitatively an in vitro T-cell culture method by determining the phenotype and function of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, including measurement of the phenotype markers CCR7, CD45RA, CD28 and CD27 and the functional markers interferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-2, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and CD107a. RESULTS: Autologous peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were potent stimulators that expanded antigen (Ag)-specific CD8(+) T cells during short-term culture with the addition of IL-2 and IL-15 cytokines. Polyfunctional Ag-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were detectable using this method. CONCLUSIONS: Our culture system represents a robust human T-cell culture protocol that permits phenotypic, quantitative and qualitative evaluation of vaccine-induced CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses.

Phase I/II study of GM-CSF DNA as an adjuvant for a multipeptide cancer vaccine in patients with advanced melanoma.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) enhances immune responses by inducing proliferation, maturation, and migration of dendritic cells (DCs) as well as expansion and differentiation of B and T lymphocytes. The potency of DNA vaccines can be enhanced by the addition of DNA encoding cytokines, acting as molecular adjuvants. We conducted a phase I/II trial of human GM-CSF DNA in conjunction with a multipeptide vaccine (gp100 and tyrosinase) in stage III/IV melanoma patients. Nineteen human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*0201+ patients were treated. Three dose levels were studied: 100, 400, and 800 microg DNA/injection, administered subcutaneously every month with 500 microg of each peptide. In the dose-ranging study, three patients were treated at each dose level. The remaining patients were then treated at the highest dose. Most toxicities were grade 1 injection-site reactions. Eight patients (42%) developed CD8+ T-cell responses, defined by a > or =3 SD increase in baseline reactivity to tyrosinase or gp100 peptide in tetramer or intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) assays. There was no relationship between dose and T-cell response. Responding T cells had an effector memory cell phenotype. Polyfunctional T cells were also demonstrated. At a median of 31 months follow-up, median survival has not been reached. Human GM-CSF DNA was found to be a safe adjuvant.

Serial in vivo imaging of the targeted migration of human HSV-TK-transduced antigen-specific lymphocytes.

New technologies are needed to characterize the migration, survival, and function of antigen-specific T cells in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)--specific T cells transduced with vectors encoding herpes simplex virus-1 thymidine kinase (HSV-TK) selectively accumulate radiolabeled 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxy-1-beta-D-arabinofuranosyl-5-iodouracil (FIAU). After adoptive transfer, HSV-TK+ T cells labeled in vitro or in vivo with [131I]FIAU or [124I]FIAU can be noninvasively tracked in SCID mice bearing human tumor xenografts by serial images obtained by scintigraphy or positron emission tomography (PET), respectively. These T cells selectively accumulate in EBV+ tumors expressing the T cells' restricting HLA allele but not in EBV- or HLA-mismatched tumors. The concentrations of transduced T cells detected in tumors and tissues are closely correlated with the concentrations of label retained at each site. Radiolabeled transduced T cells retain their capacity to eliminate targeted tumors selectively. This technique for imaging the migration of ex vivo-transduced antigen-specific T cells in vivo is informative, nontoxic, and potentially applicable to humans.

Classification of clear-cell sarcoma as a subtype of melanoma by genomic profiling.

PURPOSE: To develop a genome-based classification scheme for clear-cell sarcoma (CCS), also known as melanoma of soft parts (MSP), which would have implications for diagnosis and treatment. This tumor displays characteristic features of soft tissue sarcoma (STS), including deep soft tissue primary location and a characteristic translocation, t(12;22)(q13;q12), involving EWS and ATF1 genes. CCS/MSP also has typical melanoma features, including immunoreactivity for S100 and HMB45, pigmentation, MITF-M expression, and a propensity for regional lymph node metastases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: RNA samples from 21 cell lines and 60 pathologically confirmed cases of STS, melanoma, and CCS/MSP were examined using the U95A GeneChip (Affymetrix, Santa Clara, CA). Hierarchical cluster analysis, principal component analysis, and support vector machine (SVM) analysis exploited genomic correlations within the data to classify CCS/MSP. RESULTS: Unsupervised analyses demonstrated a clear distinction between STS and melanoma and, furthermore, showed that CCS/MSP cluster with the melanomas as a distinct group. A supervised SVM learning approach further validated this finding and provided a user-independent approach to diagnosis. Genes of interest that discriminate CCS/MSP included those encoding melanocyte differentiation antigens, MITF, SOX10, ERBB3, and FGFR1. CONCLUSION: Gene expression profiles support the classification of CCS/MSP as a distinct genomic subtype of melanoma. Analysis of these gene profiles using the SVM may be an important diagnostic tool. Genomic analysis identified potential targets for the development of therapeutic strategies in the treatment of this disease.

Identification of cancer-testis genes expressed by melanoma and soft tissue sarcoma using bioinformatics.

Cancer-testis or germ cell antigens (GCAs) are a category of tumor antigens expressed by male germ cells and by cancers of diverse histological origin, but not usually by normal adult somatic tissue. These antigens include products encoded by the MAGE, BAGE, GAGE, SSX, and LAGE/NY-ESO-1 families that encode antigenic peptides recognized by T lymphocytes. In this study, we exploit oligonucleotide technology to identify genes in melanoma and soft tissue sarcoma (STS) that display a cancer-testis/GCA expression profile. We identified 59 such genes, including GCAs we knew to be recognized by T lymphocytes. Among our findings are the expression of PRAME in monophasic synovial sarcoma, PRAME and NY-ESO-1 in myxoid/round cell liposarcoma, and SSX2 and members of the GAGE family in malignant fibrous histiocytoma. Furthermore, the proto-oncogene DBL/MCF2 was identified as encoding a novel candidate GCA expressed by clear cell sarcoma/melanoma of soft parts (MSP). DBL/MCF2 peptides that are bound to HLA-A*0201 were identified and recognized by T lymphocytes. These results show the utility of high-throughput expression analysis in the efficient screening and identification of GCA candidates in cancer, and its application to the discovery of candidate targets for T cell immunity against GCAs expressed by cancer.

Immunologic response to xenogeneic gp100 DNA in melanoma patients: comparison of particle-mediated epidermal delivery with intramuscular injection.

PURPOSE: Prior studies show that i.m. injection of xenogeneic orthologues of melanosomal antigens (tyrosinase, gp100) induces CD8(+) T-cell responses to the syngeneic protein. To further define the optimal vaccination strategy, we conducted a pilot clinical trial comparing i.m. injection with particle-mediated epidermal delivery (PMED). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*0201(+) disease-free melanoma patients were randomized to the PMED or i.m. arm, receiving eight vaccinations over 4 months. Patients received 4 microg or 2,000 microg per injection, respectively, of mouse gp100 DNA. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were collected, cultured with gp100 peptides, and analyzed by tetramer and intracellular cytokine staining for responses to HLA-A*0201-restricted gp100 epitopes [gp100(209-217) (ITDQVPFSV) and gp100(280-288) (YLEPGPVTA)]. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients with stage IIB-IV melanoma were analyzable for immune response. The only common toxicity was grade 1 injection site reaction in nine patients with no intergroup difference, and one dose-limiting toxicity of acute hypersensitivity occurred in a PMED patient with undiagnosed gold allergy. Four of 27 patients produced gp100 tetramer(+)CD8(+) T cells, all carrying the CCR7(lo)CD45RA(lo) effector-memory phenotype. Five of 27 patients generated IFN-gamma(+)CD8(+) T cells, one who was also tetramer-positive. Overall, vaccination induced a response in 30% of patients, which was not significantly associated with study arm or clinical outcome. However, the PMED group showed a trend toward increased IFN-gamma(+)CD8(+) T-cell generation (P = 0.07). CONCLUSION: A comparable efficacy and safety profile was shown between the i.m. and PMED arms, despite a significantly decreased dose of DNA used for PMED injection.

Safety and immunogenicity of tyrosinase DNA vaccines in patients with melanoma.

Immunity to self antigens on cancer is constrained by tolerance/ignorance. DNA vaccines encoding xenogeneic differentiation antigens, such as tyrosinase (TYR), mediate tumor protection and regression in implantable mouse models, and dogs with spontaneous melanoma. We conducted a trial of mouse and human TYR DNA vaccines in stage III/IV melanoma patients. Eighteen human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*0201(+) melanoma patients were randomized as follows: one group received three mouse TYR DNA injections followed by three human TYR DNA injections; the other group received the same vaccines in opposite sequence. The study was conducted at three dose levels: 100, 500, and 1,500 microg DNA/injection, administered intramuscularly (IM) every 3 weeks. Most toxicities were grade 1 injection site reactions. Seven patients developed CD8(+) T-cell responses, defined by a >3 SD increase in baseline reactivity to TYR peptide in tetramer or intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) assays. There was found to be no relationship between dose, assigned schedule, and T-cell response. At a median of 42 months follow-up, median survival has not been reached. Mouse and human TYR DNA vaccines were found safe and induced CD8(+) T-cell responses in 7 of 18 patients. T cells recognizing a native TYR peptide had a phenotype consistent with that of effector memory cells.

[131I]FIAU labeling of genetically transduced, tumor-reactive lymphocytes: cell-level dosimetry and dose-dependent toxicity.

PURPOSE: Donor T cells have been shown to be reactive against and effective in adoptive immunotherapy of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lymphomas which develop in some leukemia patients post marrow transplantation. These T cells may be genetically modified by incorporation of a replication-incompetent viral vector (NIT) encoding both an inactive mutant nerve growth factor receptor (LNGFR), as an immunoselectable surface marker, and a herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-TK), rendering the cells sensitive to ganciclovir. The current studies are based on the selective HSV-TK-catalyzed trapping (phosphorylation) of the thymidine analog [(131)I]-2'-fluoro-2'-deoxy-1-beta-D-arabinofuransyl-5-iodo-uracil (FIAU) as a means of stably labeling such T cells for in vivo trafficking (including tumor targeting) studies. Because of the radiosensitivity of lymphocytes and the potentially high absorbed dose to the nucleus from intracellular (131)I (even at tracer levels), the nucleus absorbed dose (D ( n )) and dose-dependent immune functionality were evaluated for NIT(+) T cells labeled ex vivo in [(131)I]FIAU-containing medium. METHODS: Based on in vitro kinetic studies of [(131)I]FIAU uptake by NIT(+) T cells, D ( n ) was calculated using an adaptation of the MIRD formalism and the recently published MIRD cellular S factors. Immune cytotoxicity of [(131)I]FIAU-labeled cells was assayed against (51)Cr-labeled target cells [B-lymphoblastoid cells (BLCLs)] in a standard 4-h release assay. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: At median nuclear absorbed doses up to 830 cGy, a (51)Cr-release assay against BLCLs showed no loss of immune cytotoxicity, thus demonstrating the functional integrity of genetically transduced, tumor-reactive T cells labeled at this dose level for in vivo cell trafficking and tumor targeting studies.