RESUMO
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is known to be critically involved in tissue development and homeostasis as well as in the pathogenesis of cancer. Here we showed that Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells express EGFR under inflammatory conditions. Stimulation with the EGF-like growth factor Amphiregulin (AREG) markedly enhanced Treg cell function in vitro, and in a colitis and tumor vaccination model we showed that AREG was critical for efficient Treg cell function in vivo. In addition, mast cell-derived AREG fully restored optimal Treg cell function. These findings reveal EGFR as a component in the regulation of local immune responses and establish a link between mast cells and Treg cells. Targeting of this immune regulatory mechanism may contribute to the therapeutic successes of EGFR-targeting treatments in cancer patients.
Assuntos
Receptores ErbB/imunologia , Glicoproteínas/imunologia , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intercelular/imunologia , Linfócitos T Reguladores/imunologia , Anfirregulina , Animais , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/farmacologia , Comunicação Celular/imunologia , Colite/induzido quimicamente , Colite/imunologia , Colite/metabolismo , Colite/patologia , Família de Proteínas EGF , Receptores ErbB/genética , Fatores de Transcrição Forkhead/genética , Fatores de Transcrição Forkhead/imunologia , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/efeitos dos fármacos , Glicoproteínas/antagonistas & inibidores , Glicoproteínas/genética , Glicoproteínas/farmacologia , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/genética , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/imunologia , Humanos , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intercelular/genética , Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intercelular/farmacologia , Ativação Linfocitária/efeitos dos fármacos , Mastócitos/efeitos dos fármacos , Mastócitos/imunologia , Mastócitos/metabolismo , Melanoma Experimental/genética , Melanoma Experimental/imunologia , Melanoma Experimental/patologia , Proteínas de Membrana/administração & dosagem , Proteínas de Membrana/imunologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Fragmentos de Peptídeos/administração & dosagem , Fragmentos de Peptídeos/imunologia , Transdução de Sinais/efeitos dos fármacos , Transdução de Sinais/imunologia , Linfócitos T Reguladores/efeitos dos fármacos , Linfócitos T Reguladores/metabolismoRESUMO
Fc gamma receptor (FcyR)-mediated antibody functions play a crucial role in preventing HIV infection. One such function, antibody-dependent phagocytosis (ADP), is thought to be involved in controlling other viral infections, but its role in HIV infection is unknown. We measured the ability of HIV-specific polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to mediate the internalization of HIV-1 virions and HIV-1-decorated cells by phagocytes. To measure ADP of virions, we primarily used a green-fluorescent protein-expressing molecular clone of HIV-1JRFL, an R5, clinical isolate, in combination with polyclonal HIVIG or mAbs known to capture and/or neutralize HIV-1. THP-1 and U937 cells, as well as freshly isolated primary monocytes from healthy individuals, were used as phagocytic effector cells, and uptake of virions was measured by cytometry. We surprisingly found minimal or no ADP of virions with any of the antibodies. However, after coating virions with gp41 or with gp41-derived peptides, gp41- (but not gp120-) specific mAbs efficiently mediated phagocytosis. We estimated that a minimum of a few hundred gp41 molecules were needed for successful phagocytosis, which is similar to the number of envelope spikes on viruses that are readily phagocytosed (e.g. influenza virus). Furthermore, by employing fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, a well-established technique to measure particle sizes and aggregation phenomena, we found a clear association between virus aggregation and ADP. In contrast to virions themselves, virion-decorated cells were targets for ADP or trogocytosis in the presence of HIV-specific antibodies. Our findings indicate that ADP of virions may not play a role in preventing HIV infection, likely due to the paucity of trimers and the consequent inability of virion-bound antibody to cross-link FcyRs on phagocytes. However, ADP or trogocytosis could play a role in clearing HIV-infected cells and cells on the verge of infection.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , HIV-1 , Fagocitose/imunologia , Anticorpos Monoclonais/imunologia , Linhagem Celular , Células HEK293 , Proteína gp41 do Envelope de HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/virologia , HIV-1/genética , HIV-1/imunologia , HIV-1/patogenicidade , Interações Hospedeiro-Patógeno/imunologia , Humanos , Evasão da Resposta Imune , Células U937 , Internalização do VírusRESUMO
The extensive carbohydrate coat, the variability of protein structural features on HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env), and the steric constraints of the virus-cell interface during infection, present challenges to the elicitation of effective full-length (~150 kDa), neutralizing antibodies against HIV. These hurdles have motivated the engineering of smaller antibody derivatives that can bind Env and neutralize the virus. To further understand the mechanisms by which these proteins neutralize HIV-1, we carried out cryoelectron tomography of native HIV-1 BaL virions complexed separately to two small (~15 kDa) HIV-neutralizing proteins: A12, which binds the CD4-binding site on Env, and m36, whose binding to Env is enhanced by CD4 binding. We show that despite their small size, the presence of these proteins and their effects on the quaternary conformation of trimeric Env can be visualized in molecular structures derived by cryoelectron tomography combined with subvolume averaging. Binding of Env to A12 results in a conformational change that is comparable to changes observed upon its binding to the CD4-binding site antibody, b12. In contrast, binding of Env to m36 results in an "open" quaternary conformation similar to that seen with binding of soluble CD4 or the CD4i antibody, 17b. Because these small neutralizing proteins are less sterically hindered than full-length antibodies at zones of virus-cell contact, the finding that their binding has the same structural consequences as that of other broadly neutralizing antibodies highlights their potential for use in therapeutic applications.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Neutralizantes/química , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/química , Substâncias Macromoleculares/química , Modelos Moleculares , Conformação Proteica , Microscopia Crioeletrônica , Tomografia com Microscopia Eletrônica , Ensaio de Imunoadsorção Enzimática , Ligação Proteica , Multimerização ProteicaRESUMO
Recently, we described llama antibody fragments (VHH) that can neutralize human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1). These VHH were obtained after selective elution of phages carrying an immune library raised against gp120 of HIV-1 subtype B/C CN54 with soluble CD4. We describe here a new, family-specific approach to obtain the largest possible diversity of related VHH that compete with soluble CD4 for binding to the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein. The creation of this family-specific library of homologous VHH has enabled us to isolate phages carrying similar nucleotide sequences as the parental VHH. These VHH displayed varying binding affinities and neutralization phenotypes to a panel of different strains and subtypes of HIV-1. Sequence analysis of the homologs showed that the C-terminal three amino acids of the CDR3 loop were crucial in determining the specificity of these VHH for different subtype C HIV-1 strains. There was a positive correlation between affinity of VHH binding to gp120 of HIV-1 IIIB and the breadth of neutralization of diverse HIV-1 envelopes. The family-specific approach has therefore allowed us to better understand the interaction of the CD4-binding site antibodies with virus strain specificity and has potential use for the bioengineering of antibodies and HIV-1 vaccine development.
Assuntos
HIV-1/metabolismo , Anticorpos de Cadeia Única/química , Vacinas contra a AIDS/química , Anticorpos/química , Sequência de Bases , Sítios de Ligação , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/química , Humanos , Cinética , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Mutação , Biblioteca de Peptídeos , Homologia de Sequência do Ácido NucleicoRESUMO
Little is known about the humoral immune response against DNA prime-recombinant adenovirus 5 (rAd5) boost HIV vaccine among HIV-infected patients on long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART). Previous studies emphasized cellular immune responses; however, current research suggests both cellular and humoral responses are likely required for a successful therapeutic vaccine. Thus, we aimed to understand antibody response and function induced by vaccination of ART-treated HIV-1-infected patients with immune recovery. All subjects participated in EraMune 02, an open-label randomized clinical trial of ART intensification followed by a six plasmid DNA prime (envA, envB, envC, gagB, polB, nefB) and rAd5 boost HIV vaccine with matching inserts. Antibody binding levels were determined with a recently developed microarray approach. We also analyzed neutralization efficiency and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). We found that the DNA prime-rAd5 boost vaccine induced a significant cross-clade HIV-specific antibody response, which correlated with antibody neutralization efficiency. However, despite the increase in antibody binding levels, the vaccine did not significantly stimulate neutralization or ADCC responses. This finding was also reflected by a lack of change in total CD4+ cell associated HIV DNA in those who received the vaccine. Our results have important implications for further therapeutic vaccine design and administration, especially in HIV-1 infected patients, as boosting of preexisting antibody responses are unlikely to lead to clearance of latent proviruses in the HIV reservoir.
Assuntos
Vacinas contra a AIDS/imunologia , Adenoviridae/genética , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Imunização Secundária/métodos , Vacinas de DNA/imunologia , Vacinas contra a AIDS/administração & dosagem , Adenoviridae/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/sangue , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Anticorpos Antivirais/sangue , Anticorpos Antivirais/imunologia , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos , Feminino , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/sangue , Infecções por HIV/tratamento farmacológico , Infecções por HIV/virologia , HIV-1/genética , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Vacinas de DNA/administração & dosagemRESUMO
In recent years, high throughput discovery of human recombinant monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has been applied to greatly advance our understanding of the specificity, and functional activity of antibodies against HIV. Thousands of antibodies have been generated and screened in functional neutralization assays, and antibodies associated with cross-strain neutralization and passive protection in primates, have been identified. To facilitate this type of discovery, a high throughput-screening tool is needed to accurately classify mAbs, and their antigen targets. In this study, we analyzed and evaluated a prototype microarray chip comprised of the HIV-1 recombinant proteins gp140, gp120, gp41, and several membrane proximal external region peptides. The protein microarray analysis of 11 HIV-1 envelope-specific mAbs revealed diverse binding affinities and specificities across clades. Half maximal effective concentrations, generated by our chip analysis, correlated significantly (P<0.0001) with concentrations from ELISA binding measurements. Polyclonal immune responses in plasma samples from HIV-1 infected subjects exhibited different binding patterns, and reactivity against printed proteins. Examining the totality of the specificity of the humoral response in this way reveals the exquisite diversity, and specificity of the humoral response to HIV.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Monoclonais/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Antígenos HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Ensaios de Triagem em Larga Escala/métodos , Análise Serial de Proteínas/métodos , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Especificidade de Anticorpos/imunologia , Análise por Conglomerados , Ensaio de Imunoadsorção Enzimática , Infecções por HIV/sangue , HIV-1/imunologia , Humanos , Cinética , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Peptídeos/química , Polissacarídeos/imunologia , Alinhamento de SequênciaRESUMO
Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) of infection has been described for a number of viruses including HIV-1. However, the biological role of ADE in HIV disease pathogenesis or in increasing the risk of infection upon exposure is uncertain. In this review, we outline the mechanisms of ADE, as ascertained in vitro. We also discuss several recent human and non-human primate studies that raise concern about ADE resulting from vaccine-induced or passively infused antibodies. Although biologically plausible, an important role for ADE in natural HIV infection has not been directly confirmed. Nonetheless, there is a need for further studies to pinpoint the exact mechanism or mechanisms at play in vivo and, more importantly, to develop assays that can predict the likelihood that a vaccine or antibody infusion will lead to enhanced infection or pathogenesis.
Assuntos
Vacinas contra a AIDS/imunologia , Anticorpos Facilitadores , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Animais , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/prevenção & controle , Humanos , ImunizaçãoRESUMO
The production of VHHs in microorganisms is relatively straightforward, however the amount of VHH produced per volume unit can vary substantially from hardly detectable to hundreds of milligrams per liter. Expression in Escherichia coli is more commonly used at initial research phase, since production of VHHs for large-scale application in E. coli is for a number of reasons not preferred. Otherwise VHH production in GRAS organisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae fits very well with industrial fermentation processes, and in fact the only commercially available VHHs are produced in S. cerevisiae. Immediately after the discovery of heavy chain only antibodies, which are per definition devoid of light chains, it was investigated whether many problems encountered with the production of conventional antibodies in lower eukaryotes were absent during the production of VHHs. Here we provide a protocol for the expression of VHH genes in S. cerevisiae in a fed-batch fermentation process. This protocol is also suitable for the production of multivalent VHHs.
Assuntos
Saccharomyces cerevisiae/genética , Anticorpos de Domínio Único/genética , Técnicas de Cultura Celular por Lotes , Reatores Biológicos , Fermentação , Expressão Gênica , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/isolamento & purificação , Proteínas Recombinantes de Fusão/metabolismo , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Anticorpos de Domínio Único/isolamento & purificação , Anticorpos de Domínio Único/metabolismoRESUMO
There is an urgent global need for preventive strategies against HIV-1 infections. Llama heavy-chain antibody fragments (VHH) are a class of molecules recently described as potent cross-clade HIV-1 entry inhibitors. We studied the potential of a VHH-based microbicide in an application-oriented fashion. We show that VHH can be inexpensively produced in high amounts in the GRAS organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, resulting in a very pure and endotoxin free product. VHH are very stable under conditions they might encounter during transport, storage, or use by women. We developed active formulations of VHH in aqueous gel and compressed and lyophilized tablets for controlled release from an intravaginal device. The release profile of the VHH from, e.g., a vaginal ring suggests sufficient bioavailability and protective concentration of the molecule at the mucosal site at the moment of the infection. The ex vivo penetration kinetics through human tissues show that the VHH diffuse into the mucosal layer and open the possibility to create a second defense layer either by blocking the HIV receptor binding sites or by blocking the receptors of immune cells in the mucosa. In conclusion, our data show that VHH have a high potential for HIV-1 microbicide application because of their low production costs, their high stability, and their favorable release and tissue penetration properties.
Assuntos
Anti-Infecciosos Locais/farmacologia , Soropositividade para HIV/imunologia , HIV-1/efeitos dos fármacos , Cadeias Pesadas de Imunoglobulinas/imunologia , Saccharomyces cerevisiae/imunologia , Animais , Afinidade de Anticorpos/imunologia , Camelídeos Americanos/imunologia , Dispositivos Anticoncepcionais Femininos , Ensaio de Imunoadsorção Enzimática , Feminino , Soropositividade para HIV/tratamento farmacológico , HIV-1/imunologia , Humanos , Cadeias Pesadas de Imunoglobulinas/isolamento & purificação , Cremes, Espumas e Géis VaginaisRESUMO
Many of the neutralising antibodies, isolated to date, display limited activities against the globally most prevalent HIV-1 subtypes A and C. Therefore, those subtypes are considered to be an important target for antibody-based therapy. Variable domains of llama heavy chain antibodies (VHH) have some superior properties compared with classical antibodies. Therefore we describe the application of trimeric forms of envelope proteins (Env), derived from HIV-1 of subtype A and B/C, for a prolonged immunization of two llamas. A panel of VHH, which interfere with CD4 binding to HIV-1 Env were selected with use of panning. The results of binding and competition assays to various Env, including a variant with a stabilized CD4-binding state (gp120(Ds2)), cross-competition experiments, maturation analysis and neutralisation assays, enabled us to classify the selected VHH into three groups. The VHH of group I were efficient mainly against viruses of subtype A, C and B'/C. The VHH of group II resemble the broadly neutralising antibody (bnmAb) b12, neutralizing mainly subtype B and C viruses, however some had a broader neutralisation profile. A representative of the third group, 2E7, had an even higher neutralization breadth, neutralizing 21 out of the 26 tested strains belonging to the A, A/G, B, B/C and C subtypes. To evaluate the contribution of certain amino acids to the potency of the VHH a small set of the mutants were constructed. Surprisingly this yielded one mutant with slightly improved neutralisation potency against 92UG37.A9 (subtype A) and 96ZM651.02 (subtype C). These findings and the well-known stability of VHH indicate the potential application of these VHH as anti-HIV-1 microbicides.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Neutralizantes , Camelídeos Americanos/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV , HIV-1/classificação , HIV-1/imunologia , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Substituição de Aminoácidos , Animais , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/genética , Ligação Competitiva , Antígenos CD4 , Camelídeos Americanos/genética , Regiões Determinantes de Complementaridade/genética , Reações Cruzadas , Epitopos/genética , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/genética , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/genética , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/imunologia , HIV-1/genética , Humanos , Imunização , Cadeias Pesadas de Imunoglobulinas/genética , Região Variável de Imunoglobulina/genética , Técnicas In Vitro , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Mutagênese Sítio-Dirigida , Testes de Neutralização , Homologia de Sequência de Aminoácidos , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologiaRESUMO
HIV-1 entry into host cells is mediated by the sequential binding of the envelope glycoprotein gp120 to CD4 and a chemokine receptor. Antibodies binding to epitopes overlapping the CD4-binding site on gp120 are potent inhibitors of HIV entry, such as the llama heavy chain antibody fragment V(HH) D7, which has cross-clade neutralizing properties and competes with CD4 and mAb b12 for high affinity binding to gp120. We report the crystal structure of the D7 V(HH) at 1.5 A resolution, which reveals the molecular details of the complementarity determining regions (CDR) and substantial flexibility of CDR3 that could facilitate an induced fit interaction with gp120. Structural comparison of CDRs from other CD4 binding site antibodies suggests diverse modes of interaction. Mutational analysis identified CDR3 as a key component of gp120 interaction as determined by surface plasmon resonance. A decrease in affinity is directly coupled to the neutralization efficiency since mutations that decrease gp120 interaction increase the IC50 required for HIV-1 IIIB neutralization. Thus the structural study identifies the long CDR3 of D7 as the key determinant of interaction and HIV-1 neutralization. Furthermore, our data confirm that the structural plasticity of gp120 can accommodate multiple modes of antibody binding within the CD4 binding site.