Movement disorders associated with aripiprazole use: a case series.

Aripiprazole is an atypical antipsychotic that is a partial agonist at the D2 and 5HT1a receptors and an antagonist at 5HT2a receptors. Despite previous hypotheses that it would be less likely to cause movement disorders, recent reports suggest it actually may be more likely to cause movement disorders than other atypical antipsychotics. This case series illustrates the variety of movement disorders associated with aripiprazole use at three movement disorder clinics. It also suggests that aripiprazole be used with caution in patients with a prior history of dystonia, parkinsonism, or previous tardive dyskinesia.

Glucocerebrosidase gene mutations: a risk factor for Lewy body disorders.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the glucocerebrosidase (GBA) gene have been reported to modify risk for Parkinson disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). However, these findings have not been consistently replicated, and most studies have had substantial methodological shortcomings. OBJECTIVE: To better assess the role of GBA variants in altering risk for Lewy body disorders. DESIGN: Case-control study. SETTING: Four movement disorder clinics in the Seattle, Washington, area. PARTICIPANTS: Seven hundred twenty-one patients with PD, 554 healthy control subjects, and 57 patients with DLB. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Disease status and presence or absence of the 2 most common GBA mutations (N370S and L444P). RESULTS: We observed a significantly higher heterozygote frequency for the 2 mutations in patients with PD (2.9%; P <.001) and those with DLB (3.5%; P = .045) compared with control subjects (0.4%). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that GBA mutations exert a large effect on susceptibility for Lewy body disorders at the individual level but are associated with a modest (approximately 3%) population-attributable risk in individuals of European ancestry.

Exploring gene-environment interactions in Parkinson's disease.

The objective of this study was to explore combined effects of four candidate susceptibility genes and two exposures on Parkinson's disease (PD) risk; namely, alpha-synuclein (SNCA) promoter polymorphism REP1, microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) H1/H2 haplotypes, apolipoprotein E (APOE) epsilon2/epsilon3/epsilon4 polymorphism, ubiquitin carboxy-terminal esterase L1 (UCHL1) S18Y variant, cigarette smoking and caffeinated coffee consumption. 932 PD patients and 664 control subjects from the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium, with complete data on all six factors, were studied. Uniform protocols were used for diagnosis, recruitment, data collection and genotyping. A logistic regression model which included gene-exposure interactions was applied. Likelihood ratio tests (LRTs) were used for significance testing and Bayesian inference was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs). MAPT (P = 0.007), SNCA REP1 (P = 0.012), smoking (P = 0.001), and coffee (P = 0.011) were associated with PD risk. Two novel interactions were detected: APOE with coffee (P = 0.005), and REP1 with smoking (P = 0.021). While the individual main effects were modest, each yielding OR < 1.6, the effects were cumulative, with some combinations reaching OR = 12.6 (95% CI: 5.9-26.8). This study provides evidence for the long-held notion that PD risk is modulated by cumulative and interactive effects of genes and exposures. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that while interaction studies are useful for exploring risk relationships that might otherwise go undetected, results should be interpreted with caution because of the inherent loss of power due to multiple testing. The novel findings of this study that warrant replication are the evidence for interaction of coffee with APOE, and of smoking with REP1 on PD risk.

Combined effects of smoking, coffee, and NSAIDs on Parkinson's disease risk.

Inverse associations of Parkinson's disease (PD) with cigarette smoking, coffee drinking, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use have been reported individually, but their joint effects have not been examined. To quantify associations with PD for the individual, two-way and three-way combinations of these factors, a case-control association study with 1,186 PD patients and 928 controls was conducted. The study setting was the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium. Subjects completed a structured questionnaire regarding smoking, coffee, and NSAID consumption. Odds ratios were calculated using unconditional logistic regression. Smoking, coffee, and over the counter NSAID use as individual factors exhibited significantly reduced risks of 20% to 30%. The two-way and three-way combinations were associated with risk reduction of 37% to 49%, and 62%, respectively. Smoking and coffee exhibited significant inverse risk trends with increasing cumulative exposures, suggesting dose-response relations. With respect to the combination of all three exposures, persons who were at the highest exposure strata for smoking and coffee and used NSAIDs had an estimated 87% reduction in risk (OR = 0.13, 95% CI = 0.06-0.29). Whether this finding reflects true biologic protection needs to be investigated.

Lack of evidence for an association between UCHL1 S18Y and Parkinson's disease.

UCHL1 has been proposed as a candidate gene for Parkinson's disease (PD). A meta-analysis of white and Asian subjects reported an inverse association between the non-synonymous UCHL1 S18Y polymorphism and PD risk. However, this finding was not replicated in a large case-control study and updated meta-analysis restricted to white subjects. We performed a case-control study of 1757 PD patients recruited from movement disorder clinics and 2016 unrelated controls from four regions of the United States. All subjects self-reported as white. We did not observe evidence for an association between S18Y genotypes and PD (overall P-value for association: P = 0.42). After adjustment for age, sex, and recruitment region, the odds ratio for Y/S versus S/S was 0.91 (95% CI: 0.78-1.06) and for Y/Y versus S/S was 0.87 (95% CI: 0.58-1.29). We also did not observe a significant association for recessive or dominant models of inheritance, or after stratification by age at onset, age at blood draw, sex, family history of PD, or recruitment region. Our results suggest that UCHL1 S18Y is not a major susceptibility factor for PD in white populations although we cannot exclude the possibility that the S18Y variant exerts weak effects on risk, particularly in early-onset disease.

Genetic association between alpha-synuclein and idiopathic Parkinson's disease.

Point mutations and copy number variations in SNCA, the gene encoding alpha-synuclein, cause familial Parkinson's disease (PD). A dinucleotide polymorphism (REP1) in the SNCA promoter may be a risk factor for common forms of PD. We studied 1,802 PD patients and 2,129 controls from the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium, using uniform, standardized protocols for diagnosis, subject recruitment, data collection, genotyping, and data analysis. Three common REP1 alleles (257, 259, and 261 bp, with control frequencies of 0.28, 0.65, and 0.06) and several rare alleles (combined frequency <0.01) were detected. We confirmed association of REP1 with PD risk [odds ratio (OR) = 0.86, P = 0.006 for 257-carriers; OR = 1.25, P = 0.022 for 261-carriers]. Using a normalization procedure, we showed that the 257 and 261 alleles are both independently associated with PD risk (for 257, P = 0.002 in overall data, 0.003 in non-familial PD, 0.001 in early-onset PD; for 261, P = 0.056 in overall data, 0.024 in non-familial PD, 0.052 in early-onset PD). The 257-associated risk was consistent with a dominant model [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.99, P = 0.91 for 257/257 vs. 257/X where X denotes all other common alleles; HR = 1.16, P = 0.004 for X/X vs. 257/X]. The 261-associated risk was consistent with a recessive model (HR = 1.89, P = 0.026 for 261/261 vs. 261/X; HR = 0.95, P = 0.42 for X/X vs. 261/X). Genotype-specific mean onset ages (+/-SD) ranged from 54.8 +/- 12.1 for 261/261 to 59.4 +/- 11.5 for 257/257, displaying a trend of decreasing onset age with increasing allele size (P = 0.055). Genetic variation in SNCA and its regulatory regions play an important role in both familial and sporadic PD.

Clinical features of Parkinson disease patients with homozygous leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 G2019S mutations.

BACKGROUND: The G2019S mutation is the most common pathogenic substitution in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene, which has recently been identified in familial and sporadic Parkinson disease (PD). OBJECTIVES: To report the clinical characteristics of PD patients with homozygous LRRK2 6055G>A (G2019S) mutations and to compare them with previously published descriptions of heterozygous patients. DESIGN: Descriptive clinical report from an international consortium of studies. Subjects Patients with familial PD and homozygous LRRK2 mutations included 23 Tunisians, 2 Algerians, 2 US patients, 1 Canadian, and 1 Moroccan. RESULTS: There were no observable differences between the homozygote and heterozygote phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Parkinson disease related to LRRK2 is characterized by typical clinical features, and the similarities between patients with homozygous and heterozygous mutations do not support a gene dosage effect.

Validity and utility of a LRRK2 G2019S mutation test for the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.

The G2019S mutation in the LRRK2 gene, the most common known cause of Parkinson's disease (PD), will soon be widely available as a molecular clinical test for PD. The objective of this study was to assess performance characteristics of G2019S as a clinical test for PD in the setting of typical movement disorder clinics in the United States. Subjects included 1,518 sequentially recruited PD patients from seven movement disorder clinics in the United States, and 1,733 unaffected subjects. All 3,251 subjects were genotyped for the G2019S mutation using a TaqMan assay, and mutations were verified by direct sequencing. Test validity estimates were calculated using standard methods. A total of 20/1518 patients and 1/1733 controls carried the G2019S mutation. Specificity was 99.9% (95% CI, 99.6-100%), sensitivity was 1.3% (0.8-2.1%), and the positive likelihood ratio was 22.8. A positive family history of PD increased the positive likelihood ratio to 82.5. Information on gender, age at disease onset, or age at testing did not improve test performance. The gene test was highly accurate in classifying mutation carriers as PD, but it performed poorly in predicting the phenotype of non-mutation carriers. A G2019S molecular test for PD would be highly specific, technically simple, and inexpensive. Test interpretation is straightforward when used for diagnosis of symptomatic individuals, but is more complex for risk assessment and predictive testing in asymptomatic individuals. Test results can have psychological, social, and economical ramifications; thus, proper counseling is essential.

Rasagiline: time to onset of antiparkinson effect is similar when used as a monotherapy or adjunct treatment.

OBJECTIVE: Rasagiline, a monoamine oxidase type B inhibitor, is indicated for both the initial treatment of Parkinson disease (PD) and as adjunctive (add-on) treatment for patients already taking dopaminergic therapy. This open-label prospective community-based clinical trial was designed to determine the time-to-onset and the magnitude of the beneficial effects of rasagiline in PD patients. METHODS: Patients received rasagiline of 1.0 mg once daily as monotherapy or 0.5 mg once daily as adjunct therapy (adjunct therapy dose could be increased to 1 mg/d if clinically indicated) for 12 weeks. Dietary restrictions and recommendations regarding concurrent antidepressant treatment consistent with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations were in keeping with typical usage. Effectiveness was measured as change from baseline in bradykinesia scores and physicians' and patients' global impression. Patients were prospectively monitored for treatment emergent dopaminergic side effects, tyramine reactions, and possible interactions with commonly used antidepressants. RESULTS: Objective and subjective measures of symptom severity improved at 1 week in 272 PD patients treated with once-daily rasagiline (n=123 monotherapy, n=149 adjunct therapy). The magnitude of beneficial effect was similar in monotherapy and adjunct therapy patients. No significant dopaminergic side effects, tyramine reactions, or interactions with antidepressants were observed in the 12-week trial. CONCLUSIONS: Rasagiline has a measurable beneficial effect on PD symptoms within 1 week of treatment. Rasagiline has a similar magnitude of benefit in monotherapy and adjunct therapy patients. Adverse interactions between antidepressants and rasagiline were not observed in patients in this trial. The usual use of rasagiline in community neurology practice, consistent with the FDA labeling, seems safe and effective.

Gabapentin enacarbil - clinical efficacy in restless legs syndrome.

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a sleep-related movement disorder commonly involving an unpleasant urge to move the limbs, typically the legs. Dopaminergic agents represent the first-line therapy for RLS; however, long-term use of such drugs results in worsening symptoms due to "augmentation" or other adverse events. Gabapentin, an analog of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), is an anticonvulsant/analgesic agent. Gabapentin is only mildly effective in relieving RLS symptoms, perhaps a result of its poor absorption from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Gabapentin enacarbil is a prodrug of gabapentin specifically designed to enhance absorption via the GI tract, and hence provide improved circulating levels of gabapentin on metabolism. Clinical trials to date have demonstrated favorable safety and (compared to traditional gabapentin) improved pharmacokinetics and efficacy in treating RLS symptoms. Thus, gabapentin enacarbil may prove to be a useful drug in treating RLS. An application of gabapentin enacarbil for treatment of RLS is currently pending with FDA for approval.

Common genetic variation in the HLA region is associated with late-onset sporadic Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is a common disorder that leads to motor and cognitive disability. We performed a genome-wide association study of 2,000 individuals with Parkinson's disease (cases) and 1,986 unaffected controls from the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium (NGRC). We confirmed associations with SNCA and MAPT, replicated an association with GAK (using data from the NGRC and a previous study, P = 3.2 x 10(-9)) and detected a new association with the HLA region (using data from the NGRC only, P = 2.9 x 10(-8)), which replicated in two datasets (meta-analysis P = 1.9 x 10(-10)). The HLA association was uniform across all genetic and environmental risk strata and was strong in sporadic (P = 5.5 x 10(-10)) and late-onset (P = 2.4 x 10(-8)) disease. The association peak we found was at rs3129882, a noncoding variant in HLA-DRA. Two studies have previously suggested that rs3129882 influences expression of HLA-DR and HLA-DQ. The brains of individuals with Parkinson's disease show upregulation of DR antigens and the presence of DR-positive reactive microglia, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduce Parkinson's disease risk. The genetic association with HLA supports the involvement of the immune system in Parkinson's disease and offers new targets for drug development.

SNCA variant associated with Parkinson disease and plasma alpha-synuclein level.

BACKGROUND: A functional repeat polymorphism in the SNCA promoter (REP1) conveys susceptibility for Parkinson disease (PD). There is also increasing evidence that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) elsewhere in the gene are associated with PD risk. OBJECTIVES: To further explore the association of common SNCA SNPs with PD susceptibility, to determine whether evidence of allelic heterogeneity exists, and to examine the correlation between PD-associated variants and plasma α-synuclein levels. DESIGN: Two-tiered analysis. SETTING: Academic research. PATIENTS: Patients and control subjects from the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We performed a 2-tiered analysis of 1956 patients with PD and 2112 controls from the NeuroGenetics Research Consortium using a comprehensive tag SNP approach. Previously published REP1 genotypes were also included. Plasma α-synuclein was assayed in 86 patients with PD and 78 controls using a highly sensitive Luminex assay. RESULTS: Five of 15 SNPs genotyped were associated with PD under an additive model in tier 1 (α = .05). Of these, 4 were successfully replicated in tier 2. In the combined sample, the most significant marker was rs356219 (odds ratio, 1.41; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-1.55; P = 1.6 × 10(-12)), located approximately 9 kilobases downstream from the gene. A regression model containing rs356219 alone best fit the data. The linkage disequilibrium correlation coefficient between this SNP and REP1 was low (r(2) = 0.09). The risk-associated C allele of rs356219 was also correlated with higher transformed plasma α-synuclein levels in patients under an adjusted additive model (P = .005). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that 1 or more unidentified functional SNCA variants modify risk for PD and that the effect is larger than and independent of REP1. This variant(s), tagged by rs356219, might act by upregulating SNCA expression in a dose-dependent manner.

Haplotype analysis of Lrrk2 R1441H carriers with parkinsonism.

The Roc domain of the Lrrk2 protein harbors two pathogenic mutations which cause autosomal dominant parkinsonism (R1441C and R1441G). A third putatively pathogenic variant (R1441H) has been identified in four probands of diverse ethnicity with parkinsonism. Herein we show that the R1441H substitutions lie on different haplotypes within our patients, confirming this codon as a mutational hotspot. The absence of this variant in control subjects and the presence of two other pathogenic variants at this amino acid position collectively support the contention that R1441H is a pathogenic substitution.

Restless legs syndrome: a unique case and essentials of diagnosis and treatment.

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a common, poorly understood movement disorder that can cause significant sleep disruption. RLS is characterized by uncomfortable sensations deep in the legs, relieved only by voluntary movement. Differential diagnosis includes peripheral neuropathy, leg cramps, and akathesia. Although RLS is familial in 50% of cases, secondary etiologies can be medically important, such as iron deficiency anemia and renal failure. We report a rare case of RLS associated with hyperparathyroidism. To our knowledge, only 1 other case of hyperparathyroid-related RLS has been described.

DBH -1021C-->T does not modify risk or age at onset in Parkinson's disease.

DBH is a candidate gene in Parkinson's disease (PD) and contains a putative functional polymorphism (-1021C-->T) that has been reported to modify PD susceptibility. We examined -1021C-->T in a sample of 1,244 PD patients and 1,186 unrelated control subjects. There was no significant difference in allele (p = 0.14) or genotype (p = 0.26) frequencies between the two groups. A similar result was obtained after pooling our data with those previously published. Furthermore, we found no evidence for an effect of genotype on age at onset among patients. Our findings argue against DBH -1021C-->T as a risk factor or age at onset modifier in PD.

Association analysis of MAPT H1 haplotype and subhaplotypes in Parkinson's disease.

OBJECTIVE: An inversion polymorphism of approximately 900 kb on chromosome 17q21, which includes the microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) gene defines two haplotype clades, H1 and H2. Several small case-control studies have observed a marginally significant excess of the H1/H1 diplotype among patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), and one reported refining the association to a region spanning exons 1 to 4 of MAPT. We sought to replicate these findings. METHODS: We genotyped 1,762 PD patients and 2,010 control subjects for a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that differentiates the H1 and H2 clades. We also analyzed four SNPs that define subhaplotypes within H1 previously reported to associate with PD or other neurodegenerative disorders. RESULTS: After adjusting for age, sex, and site, we observed a robust association between the H1/H1 diplotype and PD risk (odds ratio for H1/H1 vs H1/H2 and H2/H2, 1.46; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-1.69; p = 8 x 10(-7)). The effect was evident in both familial and sporadic subgroups, men and women, and early- and late-onset disease. Within H1/H1 individuals, there was no significant difference between cases and control subjects in the overall frequency distribution of H1 subhaplotypes. INTERPRETATION: Our data provide strong evidence that the H1 clade, which contains MAPT and several other genes, is a risk factor for PD. However, attributing this finding to variants within a specific region of MAPT is premature. Thorough fine-mapping of the H1 clade in large numbers of individuals is now needed to identify the underlying functional variant(s) that alter susceptibility for PD.

Parkinson's disease and LRRK2: frequency of a common mutation in U.S. movement disorder clinics.

The G2019S mutation in the LRRK2 gene is reportedly a common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and may also have a significant role in nonfamilial PD. The objective of this study was to assess mutation carrier frequency in PD patients from movement disorder clinics in the United States, stratified by family history, age at onset, and geography; to determine carrier frequency in a large and well-characterized control population; to examine segregation of mutation in families of patients; and to correlate genotype with clinical phenotype. One thousand four hundred twenty-five unrelated PD patients from movement disorder clinics in Oregon, Washington, and New York and 1,647 unrelated controls were studied. The G2019S mutation was detected using a TaqMan assay and verified by sequencing. Eighteen of 1,425 patients and one of 1,647 controls had the mutation. Carrier frequency (+/- 2SE) in patients was 0.013 +/- 0.006 overall, 0.030 +/- 0.019 in familial PD, 0.007 +/- 0.005 in nonfamilial PD, 0.016 +/- 0.013 in early-onset PD, and 0.012 +/- 0.007 in late-onset PD. Geographic differences were insignificant. Age at onset of mutation carriers ranged from 28 to 71 years. Mutation carriers were clinically indistinguishable from idiopathic PD. LRRK2 G2019S is the single most common pathogenic mutation linked to neurodegenerative disease to date.

LRRK2 G2019S in families with Parkinson disease who originated from Europe and the Middle East: evidence of two distinct founding events beginning two millennia ago.

The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S mutation is the most common genetic determinant of Parkinson disease (PD) identified to date. It accounts for 1%-7% of PD in patients of European origin and 20%-40% in Ashkenazi Jews and North African Arabs with PD. Previous studies concluded that patients from these populations all shared a common Middle Eastern founder who lived in the 13th century. We tested this hypothesis by genotyping 25 microsatellite and single-nucleotide-polymorphism markers in 22 families with G2019S and observed two distinct haplotypes. Haplotype 1 was present in 19 families of Ashkenazi Jewish and European ancestry, whereas haplotype 2 occurred in three European American families. Using a maximum-likelihood method, we estimated that the families with haplotype 1 shared a common ancestor 2,250 (95% confidence interval 1,650-3,120) years ago, whereas those with haplotype 2 appeared to share a more recent founder. Our data suggest two separate founding events for G2019S in these populations, beginning at a time that coincides with the Jewish Diasporas.