Reproducibility of plasma glucose responses to moderate-intensity exercise in individuals with type 1 diabetes.

AIM: To examine the within-person variability in plasma glucose responses to moderate-intensity morning exercise in young individuals with type 1 diabetes after overnight fasting and under basal insulin conditions. METHODS: In this pilot study, eight participants completed 40 min of moderate-intensity exercise at 60% V̇O2 peak on three separate days. The within-person standard deviation (SDw) in plasma glucose response was analysed both during and 1 h after exercise using the two visits per participant most closely matched by pre-exercise plasma glucose level. RESULTS: When the two closest matched visits per individual were included for analysis, mean (±SD) change in plasma glucose level was -1.8 ± 1.1 mmoL/L during exercise and -0.6 ± 1.0 mmoL/L during recovery, with the SDw of these changes being 0.5 mmol (95% CI 0.2, 0.8) during exercise and 0.8 mmoL/L (95% CI 0.4, 1.3) during recovery. The median intra-individual difference in plasma glucose level change was 0.3 mmoL/L [IQR 0.1, 0.7] during exercise and 0.8 mmoL/L [IQR 0.4, 1.0] during recovery. CONCLUSION: Within-person plasma glucose responses to moderate-intensity exercise may be reproducible under fasting and basal insulin conditions and similar pre-exercise plasma glucose levels. This finding may assist the design of future studies investigating both the reproducibility of glycaemic responses to exercise and blood glucose management for individuals with type 1 diabetes.

A preliminary investigation of the effects of short-duration, vigorous exercise following sleep restriction, fragmentation and extension on appetite and mood in inactive, middle-aged men.

This preliminary study aimed to investigate the effect of exercise on appetite and mood following multiple days of sleep disruption (restriction [RES], fragmentation [FRAG]) or sleep extension (EXT), compared to normal sleep (CONT) in inactive, middle-aged men. Nine men completed four randomised trials initiated by 3 nights (day 1-3) of CONT (6.5-8 hr), RES (4 hr), FRAG (6.5-8 hr, interrupted at 2-hr intervals) or EXT (10 hr). On day 4 between 08:30 and 11:00 hours, perceived appetite, food cravings, appetite-related hormones (acylated ghrelin, leptin, peptide tyrosine-tyrosine [PYY]total ), glucose, mood states and wellness (stress, fatigue, soreness, and mood) were assessed before (post-sleep manipulation [SM]) and after (post-exercise [EX]) a 20-min vigorous cycling bout (rating of perceived exertion: 15). There was no effect of sleep manipulation or exercise on perceived appetite (p = .34-.62). Some aspects of food craving were altered after RES and EXT, with vigorous exercise attenuating the desire for sweet foods in RES (p = .12). PYYtotal was lower after RES compared to EXT and FRAG (p = .03), but was unaltered by exercise (p = .03). Ghrelin was higher for RES and EXT compared to CONT and FRAG after exercise (p = .001-.03). Total wellness was reduced and total mood disturbance (TMD) was higher after RES and FRAG compared to CONT and EXT (p ≤ .05). However, vigorous exercise countered these changes, with wellness and TMD remaining significantly impaired for FRAG compared to EXT only at this time (p = .02-.03). Vigorous exercise mitigates some aspects of food cravings and counters the impaired mood states that exist after multiple days of restricted and fragmented sleep.

'They deserve a treat': the nature and antecedents of parental licensing surrounding children's physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about parents' compensatory health beliefs (CHB) surrounding their children's engagement in physical activity (PA). Our aim was to provide evidence regarding the nature of, and factors underpinning, parents' PA-related compensatory beliefs for their children. DESIGN: A qualitative descriptive approach and thematic content analysis were employed. SETTING: Parents were recruited from community sport and PA programmes. PARTICIPANTS: Eighteen parents aged 32-52 years (mean age = 40·8 (sd 5·4) years; six males; twelve females). RESULTS: Analyses indicated that parents compensate through 'passive' or 'active' means. Among parents who compensated, most described their provision of 'treat' foods/drinks and a minority described allowing extended sedentary time to their children. Parents' reasons underpinning these beliefs related to their child's general physical/health status and psychological characteristics, and their own motivation and mood state. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide the first evidence of unhealthy dietary and sedentary behaviour CHB that parents may hold regarding their children's involvement in PA.

Understanding the determinants of stress-induced eating - A qualitative study.

The relationship between stress and food consumption is complex and often characterised by substantial between- and within-person variation. From a theoretical and practical perspective, more research is needed to improve our understanding of the factors that influence this relationship. The aim of this study was to identify those factors, and to derive insight into the nature of their effects on the relationship between stress and food consumption. Using semi-structured interviews, 41 adult participants (M ± SD age = 26.7 ± 6.3 yr, BMI = 22.9 ± 3.0 kg/m2) were invited to reflect on their food consumption following stressor exposure, and to elaborate on the factors that influence stress-induced eating behaviour. Reflexive thematic analyses revealed insight into the different ways in which individuals respond to stress in terms of food quantity and choices, and more significantly, highlighted a range of factors that may influence stress-induced eating behaviours. These factors included the intensity and/or nature of the stressor, aspects of prioritisation, rewarding, knowledge of and perceptions about food, normative (e.g., family, friend) influences, automated or habituated behaviours, the availability of food, and selected coping mechanisms. These findings present important directions for researchers seeking to study the variation in stress-induced eating, and may hold substantial practical value by way of informing interventions designed to alleviate unhealthy dietary responses to stress.

Effects of diurnal exercise timing on appetite, energy intake and body composition: A parallel randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of diurnal exercise timing on appetite, energy intake and body composition in individuals with overweight or obesity. METHODS: Forty sedentary, individuals with overweight or obesity (17 males, 23 females; age: 51 ± 13 years; BMI: 30.9 ± 4.2 kg/m2) were randomly allocated to complete a 12-week supervised multi-modal exercise training program performed either in the morning (amEX) or evening (pmEX). Outcome measures included appetite in response to a standardised test meal, daily energy intake (EI), body weight and body composition. Measures of dietary behaviour were assessed at baseline and post-intervention, along with habitual physical activity, sleep quality and sleep quantity. Significance was set at p ≤ .05 and Hedge's g effect sizes were calculated. RESULTS: Regardless of timing, exercise training increased perceived fullness (AUC; g = 0.82-1.67; both p < .01), decreased daily EI (g = 0.73-0.93; both p < .01) and body-fat (g = 0.29-0.32; both p <. 01). The timing of exercise did not change the daily EI or body-fat response to training (all p ≥ .27), however, perceived fullness increased in the amEX group (p ≤ .01). DISINHIBITION: (g = 0.35-1.95; p ≤ .01) and Hunger (g = 0.05-0.4; p = .02) behaviours decreased following exercise training, with Disinhibition demonstrating greater improvements in the pmEX group (p = .01). Objective and subjective sleep quantity increased with training (all p ≤ .01), but sleep quality was not reported to change. CONCLUSIONS: Multi-modal exercise training improved body composition and some appetite outcomes, although changes were inconsistent and largely independent of exercise-timing. In the absence of dietary manipulation, the effect of diurnal exercise timing on appetite and body composition appear trivial compared to the overall benefits of exercise participation.

Evening high-intensity interval exercise does not disrupt sleep or alter energy intake despite changes in acylated ghrelin in middle-aged men.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the interactions between sleep and appetite following early evening high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE)? What is the main finding and its importance? HIIE can be performed in the early evening without subsequent sleep disruptions and may favourably alter appetite-related hormone concentrations. Nonetheless, perceived appetite and energy intake do not change with acute HIIE regardless of time of day. ABSTRACT: Despite exercise benefits for sleep and appetite, due to increased time restraints, many adults remain inactive. Methods to improve exercise compliance include preferential time-of-day or engaging in short-duration, high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE). Hence, this study aimed to compare effects of HIIE time-of-day on sleep and appetite. Eleven inactive men undertook sleep monitoring to determine baseline (BASE) sleep stages and exclude sleep disorders. On separate days, participants completed 30 min HIIE (60 s work at 100% V̇O2peak , 240 s rest at 50% V̇O2peak ) in (1) the morning (MORN; 06.00-07.00 h), (2) the afternoon (AFT; 14.00-16.00 h) and (3) the early evening (EVEN: 19.00-20.00 h). Measures included appetite-related hormones (acylated ghrelin, leptin, peptide tyrosine tyrosine) and glucose pre-exercise, 30 min post-exercise and the next morning; overnight polysomnography (PSG; sleep stages); and actigraphy, self-reported sleep and food diaries for 48 h post-exercise. There were no between-trial differences for total sleep time (P = 0.46). Greater stage N3 sleep was recorded for MORN (23 ± 7%) compared to BASE (18 ± 7%; P = 0.02); however, no between-trial differences existed (P > 0.05). Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep was lower and non-REM sleep was higher for EVEN compared to BASE (P ≤ 0.05). At 30 min post-exercise, ghrelin was higher for AFT compared to MORN and EVEN (P = 0.01), while glucose was higher for MORN compared to AFT and EVEN (P ≤ 0.02). No between-trial differences were observed for perceived appetite (P ≥ 0.21) or energy intake (P = 0.57). Early evening HIIE can be performed without subsequent sleep disruptions and reduces acylated ghrelin. However, perceived appetite and energy intake appear to be unaffected by HIIE time of day.

Brachial and Cerebrovascular Functions Are Enhanced in Postmenopausal Women after Ingestion of Chocolate with a High Concentration of Cocoa.

Background: Cocoa contains polyphenols that are thought to be beneficial for vascular health.Objective: We assessed the impact of chocolate containing distinct concentrations of cocoa on cerebrovascular function and cognition.Methods: Using a counterbalanced within-subject design, we compared the acute impact of consumption of energy-matched chocolate containing 80%, 35%, and 0% single-origin cacao on vascular endothelial function, cognition, and cerebrovascular function in 12 healthy postmenopausal women (mean ± SD age: 57.3 ± 5.3 y). Participants attended a familiarization session, followed by 3 experimental trials, each separated by 1 wk. Outcome measures included cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFv) responses, recorded before and during completion of a computerized cognitive assessment battery (CogState); brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD); and hemodynamic responses (heart rate and blood pressure).Results: When CBFv data before and after chocolate intake were compared between conditions through the use of 2-factor ANOVA, an interaction effect (P = 0.003) and main effects for chocolate (P = 0.043) and time (P = 0.001) were evident. Post hoc analysis revealed that both milk chocolate (MC; 35% cocoa; P = 0.02) and dark chocolate (DC; 80% cocoa; P = 0.003) induced significantly lower cerebral blood flow responses during the cognitive tasks, after normalizing for changes in arterial pressure. DC consumption also increased brachial FMD compared with the baseline value before chocolate consumption (P = 0.002), whereas MC and white chocolate (0% cocoa) caused no change (P-interaction between conditions = 0.034).Conclusions: Consumption of chocolate containing high concentrations of cocoa enhanced vascular endothelial function, which was reflected by improvements in FMD. Cognitive function outcomes did not differ between conditions; however, cerebral blood flow responses during these cognitive tasks were lower in those consuming MC and DC. These findings suggest that chocolate containing high concentrations of cocoa may modify the relation between cerebral metabolism and blood flow responses in postmenopausal women. This trial was registered at www.ANZCTR.orgau as ACTRN12616000990426.

A randomized clinical trial of exercise during pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes mellitus and improve pregnancy outcome in overweight and obese pregnant women.

BACKGROUND: Obesity and being overweight are becoming epidemic, and indeed, the proportion of such women of reproductive age has increased in recent times. Being overweight or obese prior to pregnancy is a risk factor for gestational diabetes mellitus, and increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome for both mothers and their offspring. Furthermore, the combination of gestational diabetes mellitus with obesity/overweight status may increase the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome attributable to either factor alone. Regular exercise has the potential to reduce the risk of developing gestational diabetes mellitus and can be used during pregnancy; however, its efficacy remain controversial. At present, most exercise training interventions are implemented on Caucasian women and in the second trimester, and there is a paucity of studies focusing on overweight/obese pregnant women. OBJECTIVE: We sought to test the efficacy of regular exercise in early pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes mellitus in Chinese overweight/obese pregnant women. STUDY DESIGN: This was a prospective randomized clinical trial in which nonsmoking women age >18 years with a singleton pregnancy who met the criteria for overweight/obese status (body mass index 24≤28 kg/m2) and had an uncomplicated pregnancy at <12+6 weeks of gestation were randomly allocated to either exercise or a control group. Patients did not have contraindications to physical activity. Patients allocated to the exercise group were assigned to exercise 3 times per week (at least 30 min/session with a rating of perceived exertion between 12-14) via a cycling program begun within 3 days of randomization until 37 weeks of gestation. Those in the control group continued their usual daily activities. Both groups received standard prenatal care, albeit without special dietary recommendations. The primary outcome was incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus. RESULTS: From December 2014 through July 2016, 300 singleton women at 10 weeks' gestational age and with a mean prepregnancy body mass index of 26.78 ± 2.75 kg/m2 were recruited. They were randomized into an exercise group (n = 150) or a control group (n = 150). In all, 39 (26.0%) and 38 (25.3%) participants were obese in each group, respectively. Women randomized to the exercise group had a significantly lower incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus (22.0% vs 40.6%; P < .001). These women also had significantly less gestational weight gain by 25 gestational weeks (4.08 ± 3.02 vs 5.92 ± 2.58 kg; P < .001) and at the end of pregnancy (8.38 ± 3.65 vs 10.47 ± 3.33 kg; P < .001), and reduced insulin resistance levels (2.92 ± 1.27 vs 3.38 ± 2.00; P = .033) at 25 gestational weeks. Other secondary outcomes, including gestational weight gain between 25-36 gestational weeks (4.55 ± 2.06 vs 4.59 ± 2.31 kg; P = .9), insulin resistance levels at 36 gestational weeks (3.56 ± 1.89 vs 4.07 ± 2.33; P = .1), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (17.0% vs 19.3%; odds ratio, 0.854; 95% confidence interval, 0.434-2.683; P = .6), cesarean delivery (except for scar uterus) (29.5% vs 32.5%; odds ratio, 0.869; 95% confidence interval, 0.494-1.529; P = .6), mean gestational age at birth (39.02 ± 1.29 vs 38.89 ± 1.37 weeks' gestation; P = .5); preterm birth (2.7% vs 4.4%, odds ratio, 0.600; 95% confidence interval, 0.140-2.573; P = .5), macrosomia (defined as birthweight >4000 g) (6.3% vs 9.6%; odds ratio, 0.624; 95% confidence interval, 0.233-1.673; P = .3), and large-for-gestational-age infants (14.3% vs 22.8%; odds ratio, 0.564; 95% confidence interval, 0.284-1.121; P = .1) were also lower in the exercise group compared to the control group, but without significant difference. However, infants born to women following the exercise intervention had a significantly lower birthweight compared with those born to women allocated to the control group (3345.27 ± 397.07 vs 3457.46 ± 446.00 g; P = .049). CONCLUSION: Cycling exercise initiated early in pregnancy and performed at least 30 minutes, 3 times per week, is associated with a significant reduction in the frequency of gestational diabetes mellitus in overweight/obese pregnant women. And this effect is very relevant to that exercise at the beginning of pregnancy decreases the gestational weight gain before the mid-second trimester. Furthermore, there was no evidence that the exercise prescribed in this study increased the risk of preterm birth or reduced the mean gestational age at birth.

Factors influencing the post-exercise hepcidin-25 response in elite athletes.

PURPOSE: The extent to which hepcidin regulation after acute bouts of exercise is influenced by baseline (resting) concentrations of key iron parameters remains uncertain. This investigation explored the influence of selected iron parameters and 25-km race walk time on 3-h post-exercise hepcidin-25 levels in international-level race walkers. METHODS: Twenty-four male race walkers completed a graded exercise test and a 25-km race-walk trial. Throughout the 25-km race-walk, venous blood samples were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, and at 3-h post-exercise. Blood was analysed for serum ferritin, serum iron, Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and hepcidin-25 concentration. RESULTS: IL-6 and hepcidin-25 increased (7.6- and 7.5-fold, respectively) in response to the 25-km race-walk trial (both p < 0.01). Significant individual relationships were evident between 3-h post-exercise hepcidin-25, baseline serum ferritin and serum iron (r > 0.62; p < 0.05). Multiple regression analysis showed that these two iron parameters, in addition to post-exercise IL-6 concentration and 25-km race-walk time, accounted for ~77% of the variance in 3-h post-exercise hepcidin-25 (p < 0.01). A median split by the cohort's baseline serum ferritin concentration (LOW: 58.0 vs. HIGH: 101.8 µg/L; p < 0.01) showed a significant between group difference in the 3-h post-exercise hepcidin-25 (LOW: 6.0 ± 3.6 vs. 11.3 ± 5.4 nM; p = 0.01), despite no differences in baseline serum iron, post-exercise IL-6, or 25-km race-walk time (all p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Despite exercise activating numerous hepcidin regulators, baseline iron status appears to play a dominant role in the regulation of hepcidin-25 in elite-level athletes subsequent to endurance exercise.

Stress-induced eating and the relaxation response as a potential antidote: A review and hypothesis.

There is an accumulating body of evidence to indicate that stress leads to the consumption of unhealthy, energy-dense, palatable food, potentially contributing to the alarming global prevalence of chronic diseases, including obesity. However, comparatively little research has been devoted to addressing how best to remedy this growing problem. We provide an overview of the influence of stress on dietary intake, and then explore the novel, yet simple, possibility that regular elicitation of the relaxation response may effectively reduce stress-induced eating via both physiological neuroendocrine and reward pathways and psychological pathways involving emotion regulation, and habitual coping. If shown to be effective, the regular practice of relaxation may provide a convenient, cost efficient, patient-centered therapeutic practice to assist in the prevention of unhealthy weight gain and other negative consequences of unhealthy food intake.

Consumption of dark chocolate attenuates subsequent food intake compared with milk and white chocolate in postmenopausal women.

BACKGROUND: Chocolate has a reputation for contributing to weight gain due to its high fat, sugar and calorie content. However, the effect of varying concentrations of cocoa in chocolate on energy intake and appetite is not clear. OBJECTIVE: To compare the acute effect of consuming an isocaloric dose of dark, milk and white chocolate on subsequent energy intake, appetite and mood in postmenopausal women. METHODS: Fourteen healthy postmenopausal women (57.6 ± 4.8yr) attended an introductory session followed by three experimental trials performed in a counterbalanced order at a standardised time of day, each separated by one week. Ad libitum energy intake, perceived appetite, mood and appetite-related peptides were assessed in response to consumption of 80% cocoa [dark chocolate], 35% cocoa [milk chocolate] and cocoa butter [white chocolate] (2099 kJ), prepared from a single-origin cacao bean. RESULTS: Ad libitum energy intake was significantly lower following dark (1355 ± 750 kJ) compared with both milk (1693 ± 969 kJ; P = 0.008) and white (1842 ± 756 kJ; P = 0.001) chocolate consumption. Blood glucose and insulin concentrations were transiently elevated in response to white and milk chocolate consumption compared with the dark chocolate (P < 0.05), while pancreatic polypeptide was elevated in response to higher cocoa content chocolate (dark and milk) compared with white chocolate (P < 0.05). No differences in active ghrelin or leptin were observed between conditions, nor was mood altered between conditions (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dark chocolate attenuates subsequent food intake in postmenopausal women, compared to the impact of milk and white chocolate consumption.

Variations in reporting of outcomes in randomized trials on diet and physical activity in pregnancy: A systematic review.

AIM: Trials on diet and physical activity in pregnancy report on various outcomes. We aimed to assess the variations in outcomes reported and their quality in trials on lifestyle interventions in pregnancy. METHODS: We searched major databases without language restrictions for randomized controlled trials on diet and physical activity-based interventions in pregnancy up to March 2015. Two independent reviewers undertook study selection and data extraction. We estimated the percentage of papers reporting 'critically important' and 'important' outcomes. We defined the quality of reporting as a proportion using a six-item questionnaire. Regression analysis was used to identify factors affecting this quality. RESULTS: Sixty-six randomized controlled trials were published in 78 papers (66 main, 12 secondary). Gestational diabetes (57.6%, 38/66), preterm birth (48.5%, 32/66) and cesarian section (60.6%, 40/66), were the commonly reported 'critically important' outcomes. Gestational weight gain (84.5%, 56/66) and birth weight (87.9%, 58/66) were reported in most papers, although not considered critically important. The median quality of reporting was 0.60 (interquartile range 0.25, 0.83) for a maximum score of one. Study and journal characteristics did not affect quality. CONCLUSION: Many studies on lifestyle interventions in pregnancy do not report critically important outcomes, highlighting the need for core outcome set development.

Effects of Aerobic, Strength or Combined Exercise on Perceived Appetite and Appetite-Related Hormones in Inactive Middle-Aged Men.

Aerobic exercise (AE) and strength exercise (SE) are reported to induce discrete and specific appetite-related responses; however, the effect of combining AE and SE (i.e., combined exercise; CE) remains relatively unknown. Twelve inactive overweight men (age: 48 ± 5 y; BMI: 29.9 ± 1.9 kg∙m2) completed four conditions in a random order: 1) nonexercise control (CON) (50 min seated rest); 2) AE (50 min cycling; 75% VO2peak); 3) SE (10 × 8 leg extensions; 75% 1RM); and 4) CE (50% SE + 50% AE). Perceived appetite, and appetiterelated peptides and metabolites were assessed before and up to 2 h postcondition (0P, 30P, 60P, 90P, 120P). Perceived appetite did not differ between trials (p < .05). Acylated ghrelin was lower at 0P in AE compared with CON (p = .039), while pancreatic polypeptide (PP) was elevated following AE compared with CON and CE. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIPtotal) was greater following all exercise conditions compared with CON, as was glucagon, although concentrations were generally highest in AE (p < .05). Glucose was acutely increased with SE and AE (p < .05), while insulin and C-peptide were higher after SE compared with all other conditions (p < .05). In inactive, middle-aged men AE, SE and CE each have their own distinct effects on circulating appetite-related peptides and metabolites. Despite these differential exercise-induced hormone responses, exercise mode appears to have little effect on perceived appetite compared with a resting control in this population.

Enhancing energy expenditure and enjoyment of exercise during pregnancy through the addition of brief higher intensity intervals to traditional continuous moderate intensity cycling.

BACKGROUND: Current guidelines recommend that pregnant women without contraindications should engage in 30 min or more of moderate intensity exercise on most days of the week, however, many women fail to achieve this goal. This study examined the effect of adding brief higher intensity intervals to traditional continuous moderate intensity exercise on energy expenditure and the enjoyment of exercise in late pregnancy. This is important to determine given that any additional energy expenditure resulting from higher intensity intervals may be meaningless if enjoyment is compromised, since long-term adherence will likely be low. METHODS: In this study, 12 healthy pregnant women at 30 ± 1 weeks gestation, aged 35 ± 6 years with a BMI of 27.1 ± 4.3 kg/m(2) performed either 30 min of continuous cycling exercise (CONT) at a steady power output equivalent to 65 % age-predicted heart rate maximum or an equivalent period of interval cycling (INTV) consisting of continuous cycling at the same power output as CONT, but with the addition of six 15-s self-paced higher intensity efforts throughout, performed at regular intervals, on separate occasions in a counterbalanced order. RESULTS: Mean cycling power output, heart rate, oxygen consumption and energy expenditure were higher during INTV compared with CONT (P < 0.05). However, there was no difference in mean rate of perceived exertion between conditions. Enjoyment of exercise was higher with INTV (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The addition of six 15-s higher intensity intervals to continuous moderate intensity exercise effectively increased energy expenditure by 28 %, at the same time as enhancing the enjoyment of exercise in late pregnancy. While these findings may be specific to recreationally active women, this study provides a rationale for future studies to examine the physiological and psychological responses to regular interval training during pregnancy to optimise exercise prescription. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12616000680460 . 25 May 2016 (Registered retrospectively).

A comparison of beliefs about exercise during pregnancy between Chinese and Australian pregnant women.

BACKGROUND: Despite the well-established benefits of exercise during pregnancy, many women remain inactive. This may be related, in part, to women's beliefs about exercise in pregnancy, which are likely influenced by cultural background. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to compare attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control toward exercise, together with current levels of exercise participation between Chinese and Australian women during pregnancy. A second aim was to determine the extent to which these factors predict intention to exercise within a Theory of Planned Behaviour framework. METHODS: Pregnant women (22 ± 2 weeks of gestation) living in China (n = 240) and Australia (n = 215) completed a questionnaire designed to assess a) maternal beliefs regarding the importance of exercise in relation to other health behaviours, b) attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions toward exercise, and c) current levels of physical activity. One-way analyses of variance were used to compare the demographics, maternal beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, intentions to exercise, and current physical activity levels between the Chinese and Australian samples. Structural equation modelling was used to determine which factors predicted intention to exercise in the two samples. RESULTS: Australian women reported higher levels of current exercise and intentions to exercise in the next four weeks of pregnancy compared with Chinese women. These observations were associated with higher instrumental attitudes, ratings of subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control toward exercise in the Australian women. Instrumental attitudes and perceived behavioural control predicted intention to exercise in the Australian women, while perceived behavioural control was the only predictor of intentions to exercise in the Chinese sample. CONCLUSIONS: Beliefs, attitudes, barriers and intentions towards exercise during pregnancy differ between cultures. Understanding these differences may assist in the design of exercise interventions to maximise exercise adherence and lifelong physical activity patterns.

Influence of Hormonal Profile on Resting Metabolic Rate in Normal, Overweight and Obese Individuals.

AIMS: To investigate whether blood thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), cortisol, insulin and glucose concentrations (plus glucose:insulin ratio; GIR) could improve the accuracy of resting metabolic rate (RMR) prediction in normal, overweight and obese persons. METHODS: Predictive equations were developed and compared against indirect calorimetry measures for RMR in 217 weight-control clinic participants (n = 128 males and n = 89 females: ∼24% normal weight, ∼39% overweight and ∼37% obese). RESULTS: Using the common accuracy criteria of the proportion of predicted RMR within ±10% of measured RMR, our equations (using age, height, weight and gender, plus the blood factors, both independently and in combination) were accurate ∼36-44% of the time, for the whole sample, and when separated by gender and weight class. Specifically, the addition of the blood hormone and glucose concentrations improved the accuracy of predicted RMR by only 1-8% (NS). CONCLUSIONS: Including blood TSH, cortisol, insulin, glucose and GIR into RMR prediction equations did not significantly improve estimation accuracy, which in any case only met a criterion of ±10% of the measured RMR ∼40% of the time. Further work to refine the prediction of RMR is still needed, and at present, direct measurements should be made wherever possible.

Mouth rinsing with a bitter solution without ingestion does not improve sprint cycling performance.

PURPOSE: Recently, we have shown that combining mouth rinsing with the ingestion of a 2 mM quinine solution immediately before a 30-s cycling sprint significantly improves performance. However, the strong bitterness of such a solution produces an unpleasant taste and evokes nausea at higher concentrations. Given the possibility that mouth rinsing with quinine without ingesting it may not produce nausea, a mouth rinse only protocol may be a more practical approach to administer quinine for improving exercise performance. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether mouth rinsing with quinine without ingesting it improves 30-s sprint cycling performance. METHODS: Twelve competitive male cyclists performed a 30-s maximal cycling sprint immediately after rinsing their mouth for 10 s with either a 10 mM bitter quinine solution (QUI), plain water (WAT), a 7.1 % w/v sweet glucose solution (GLU), or no solution at all (control; CON). Sprint performance was assessed, and heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion and blood variables were measured pre- and post-exercise. RESULTS: Mean power output during the 30-s sprint (QUI 888 ± 38; CON 873 ± 39; WAT 885 ± 37; GLU 873 ± 42 W; p = 0.431) as well as peak power (QUI 1230 ± 61; CON 1,208 ± 65; WAT 1,220 ± 70; GLU 1,202 ± 59 W; p = 0.690) were similar between the four conditions. There were no significant differences in any other performance measures, heart rate, subjective ratings or blood variables between conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Mouth rinsing with a bitter tasting quinine solution without ingestion does not improve 30-s sprint cycling performance.

Mouth rinsing and ingestion of a bitter-tasting solution increases corticomotor excitability in male competitive cyclists.

PURPOSE: Recently, we have shown that the combination of mouth rinsing and ingesting a bitter-tasting quinine solution immediately prior to the performance of a maximal 30-s cycling sprint significantly improves mean and peak power output. This ergogenic effect was proposed to be related to the activation of the corticomotor pathway by afferent taste signals originating from bitter taste receptors in the oral cavity. The aim of the present study was to use single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation to investigate whether mouth rinsing and ingestion of a bitter quinine solution increases corticomotor excitability. METHODS: A series of 10 motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the relaxed first dorsal interosseus muscle in 16 male competitive cyclists immediately before and after they rinsed their mouth for 10 s and then ingested either a 2 mM bitter quinine solution or plain water. RESULTS: Mean MEP amplitude was significantly increased in response to quinine administration by 16% (p < 0.05), with no evidence of a time-dependent effect over the 10 pulses. Mean MEP amplitude also increased by 10% in response to water administration (p < 0.05), though this increase was significantly smaller than the response to quinine (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the activation of bitter taste receptors in the oral cavity and upper gastrointestinal tract has the capacity to increase corticomotor excitability in male competitive cyclists.

Effects of sodium phosphate and beetroot juice supplementation on repeated-sprint ability in females.

INTRODUCTION: Sodium phosphate (SP) and beetroot juice (BJ) supplementation was assessed on repeated-sprint ability (RSA). METHODS: Thirteen female team-sport participants completed four trials: (1) SP and BJ (SP + BJ), (2) SP and placebo (for BJ), (3) BJ and placebo (for SP) and (4) placebo (for SP + BJ), with ~21 days separating each trial. After each trial, participants performed a simulated team-game circuit (STGC) consisting of four 15 min quarters, with a 6 × 20-m repeated-sprint set performed at the start, half-time and end. RESULTS: Total sprint times were between 0.95-1.30 and 0.83-1.12 s faster for each RSA set and 3.25 and 3.12 s faster overall (~5% improvement) after SP compared with placebo and BJ, respectively (p = 0.02 for sets 1, 2 and overall; Cohen's effect size: d = -0.51 to -0.90 for all sets and overall). Additionally, total sprint times were 0.48 s faster after SP + BJ compared with placebo (set 2; p = 0.05, ~2% improvement). Furthermore, best sprints were 0.13-0.23 and 0.15-0.20 s faster (~6% improvement; p < 0.01) after SP compared with placebo and BJ, respectively, for all sets (d = -0.54 to -0.89). CONCLUSION: SP improved RSA in team-sport, female athletes when fresh (set 1) and during the later sets of a STGC (sets 2 and 3). Specifically, total and best sprint times were faster after SP compared with placebo and BJ.

Effects of sodium phosphate and caffeine loading on repeated-sprint ability.

The effects of sodium phosphate and caffeine supplementation were assessed on repeated-sprint ability. Using a randomised, double-blind, Latin-square design, 12 female, team-sport players participated in four trials: (1) sodium phosphate and caffeine, (2) sodium phosphate and placebo (for caffeine), (3) caffeine and placebo (for sodium phosphate) and (4) placebo (for sodium phosphate and caffeine), with ~21 days separating each trial. After each trial, participants performed a simulated team-game circuit (4 × 15 min quarters) with 6 × 20-m repeated-sprints performed once before (Set 1), at half-time (Set 2), and after end (Set 3). Total sprint times were faster after sodium phosphate and caffeine supplementation compared with placebo (Set 1: P = 0.003; Set 2: d = -0.51; Set 3: P < 0.001; overall: P = 0.020), caffeine (Set 3: P = 0.004; overall: P = 0.033) and sodium phosphate (Set 3: d = -0.67). Furthermore, total sprint times were faster after sodium phosphate supplementation compared with placebo (Set 1: d = -0.52; Set 3: d = -0.58). Best sprint results were faster after sodium phosphate and caffeine supplementation compared with placebo (Set 3: P = 0.007, d = -0.90) and caffeine (Set 3: P = 0.024, d = -0.73). Best sprint times were also faster after sodium phosphate supplementation compared with placebo (d = -0.54 to -0.61 for all sets). Sodium phosphate and combined sodium phosphate and caffeine loading improved repeated-sprint ability.