The Long-Term Effects of Functional Communication Training Conducted in Young Children's Home Settings.

This article describes the results of a series of studies that involved functional communication training (FCT) conducted in children's homes by their parents. The 103 children who participated were six years old or younger, had developmental delays, and engaged in destructive behaviors such as self-injury. The core procedures used in each study were functional analyses (FA) and FCT conducted by parents with coaching by the investigators. The overall results of the projects showed that the FA plus FCT intervention package produced substantial reductions in destructive behavior (M = 90%), which were often maintained following treatment. In terms of behavioral momentum theory, these results suggest that analyses of behavioral persistence provide an explicit technology of maintenance.

AN EVALUATION OF RESURGENCE DURING FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING.

Three children who displayed destructive behavior maintained by negative reinforcement received functional communication training (FCT). During FCT, the children were required to complete a demand and then to mand (touch a card attached to a microswitch, sign, or vocalize) to receive brief play breaks. Prior to and 1 to 3 times following the initiation of FCT, extinction probes were conducted to evaluate the resurgence of destructive behavior when the microswitch without the mand card was present or the microswitch and the mand card were absent to determine if different patterns of resurgence occurred when the microswitch was present or absent and, for 2 of the children, if changes in resurgence occurred at different points in treatment. Results showed that FCT led to relatively rapid reductions in destructive behavior. During all extinction sessions, resurgence of destructive behavior occurred with only minimal differences across the switch/no card and no-switch conditions.

A Preliminary Evaluation of Functional Communication Training Effectiveness and Language Preference When Spanish and English are Manipulated.

We evaluated whether differences in treatment effectiveness or preference between languages emerged across Spanish and English during functional communication training (FCT) for young children with developmental disabilities exposed to Spanish and English in the home environment. Participants were 2 young children with developmental disabilities who displayed destructive behavior maintained by social contingencies and whose families spoke Spanish and English at home. All procedures were conducted in the participants' homes by their mothers with coaching from the investigator. The effectiveness of FCT was evaluated within a reversal design across baseline, FCT, and extinction conditions. A multielement design across language type (Spanish and English) was embedded within the reversal design during the extinction and FCT conditions to evaluate differences in treatment effectiveness across type of language. Finally, during all FCT sessions, a concurrent schedules design was used to evaluate participant preference for type of language. Results suggested that FCT was effective in reducing destructive behavior, increasing manding, and/or increasing task completion for these 2 participants across Spanish and English treatment conditions. Preference for the type of language did not emerge for either participant during FCT. Results are discussed in terms of the merits of systematically evaluating language variables when working with culturally and linguistically diverse families and children.

Indirect Effects of Functional Communication Training on Non-Targeted Disruptive Behavior.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of functional communication training (FCT) on the occurrence of non-targeted disruptive behavior. The 10 participants were preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities who engaged in both destructive (property destruction, aggression, self-injury) and disruptive (hand flapping, spinning in circles, shrill laughter, screaming, crying) behaviors. Only destructive behavior was targeted for the functional analyses and FCT, but data were also collected on disruptive behaviors. All procedures were conducted in the participants' homes by their mothers with investigator coaching. Phase 1 consisted of conducting a functional analysis within a multielement design. Phase 2 consisted of conducting FCT with demand fading and repeated extinction baselines within a reversal design. Single-case data are provided for 3 participants, and summary data are provided for all 10 participants. Results of phase 1 showed that all participants' destructive and disruptive behavior was maintained, at least in part, by negative reinforcement. Results of phase 2 showed that both destructive behavior and non-targeted disruptive behavior occurred at lower levels during FCT when compared to the functional analysis demand condition and baseline conditions, suggesting that FCT was effective in decreasing both target destructive behavior and non-targeted disruptive behaviors.

Analysis of Mand Selection across Different Stimulus Conditions.

We conducted a three-phase study to evaluate the use of mands and the occurrence of problem behavior for 2 children with developmental disabilities. During Phase 1, a functional analysis identified the variables maintaining problem behavior. During Phase 2, functional communication training was implemented within a concurrent schedules design. The children were reinforced for using either a novel mand (communication card) or other existing mands (vocal speech, manual signs) that were not specifically trained but were observed to be part of the children's existing repertoire. We then conducted an assessment of mands and problem behavior across different stimulus conditions (card absent, card present) within an ABAB design (Phase 3). Results showed that during Phase 2, problem behavior decreased and participants used the card more frequently than they used other existing mands. Phase 3 showed that problem behavior remained low across both stimulus conditions. When the card was absent, the children used other existing mands; when the card was present, they primarily used the card. These results suggested that the presence of a communication card may function as a discriminative stimulus for a specific topography of manding, but that training with the card did not inhibit the use of other mands when the card was absent.

Analysis of Multiple Manding Topographies during Functional Communication Training.

We evaluated the effects of reinforcing multiple manding topographies during functional communication training (FCT) to decrease problem behavior for three preschool-age children. During Phase 1, a functional analysis identified conditions that maintained problem behavior for each child. During Phase 2, the children's parents taught them to request positive reinforcers (attention or toys) via vocal manding, manual signing, or touching a picture/word card with or without a microswitch recording device. A non-concurrent multiple-baseline design across children was used to evaluate FCT outcomes. Results showed that problem behavior decreased for all three children. Results also indicated that the children initially used multiple manding topographies but displayed a preference for vocal manding over time.

Using telemedicine to conduct behavioral assessments.

We describe the use of telemedicine by the Biobehavioral Service at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics to conduct brief functional analyses for children with developmental and behavioral disorders who live in rural areas of Iowa. Instead of being served at our outpatient facility, participants received initial behavioral assessments in their local schools or social service agencies via videoconference. Case descriptions for 2 participants whose evaluations were conducted via telemedicine, and a brief summary of all outpatient assessments conducted over a 4-year period by the Biobehavioral Service, are provided. This report extends previous applications of functional analysis procedures by examining brief behavioral assessments conducted via telemedicine.

Evaluation of relations between specific antecedent stimuli and self-injury during functional analysis conditions.

We evaluated the influence of child location on the occurrence of self-injurious behavior (SIB) during functional analyses conducted in home settings. An initial functional analysis conducted with 2 children who had developmental disabilities showed undifferentiated patterns of SIB. Analyses of behavior during free play suggested that the child's location was an active variable for self-injury. Both children showed a decrease in self-injury when they were placed next to their parent versus being placed in a wheelchair or on the floor. A second functional analysis was conducted with child and parent on a couch. Results showed low percentages of self-injury during free play, but high percentages during other test conditions. Functional communication training programs for each child resulted in decreases in self-injury.

Promoting response variability and stimulus generalization in martial arts training.

The effects of reinforcement and extinction on response variability and stimulus generalization in the punching and kicking techniques of 2 martial arts students were evaluated across drill and sparring conditions. During both conditions, the students were asked to demonstrate different techniques in response to an instructor's punching attack. During baseline, the students received no feedback on their responses in either condition. During the intervention phase, the students received differential reinforcement in the form of instructor feedback for each different punching or kicking technique they performed during a session of the drill condition, but no reinforcement was provided for techniques in the sparring condition. Results showed that both students increased the number of different techniques they performed when reinforcement and extinction procedures were conducted during the drill condition, and that this increase in response variability generalized to the sparring condition.

An evaluation of persistence of treatment effects during long-term treatment of destructive behavior.

Eight young children who displayed destructive behavior maintained, at least in part, by negative reinforcement received long-term functional communication training (FCT). During FCT, the children completed a portion of a task and then touched a communication card attached to a microswitch to obtain brief breaks. Prior to and intermittently throughout FCT, extinction probes were conducted within a withdrawal design in which task completion, manding, and destructive behavior were placed on extinction to evaluate the relative persistence of appropriate and destructive behavior over the course of treatment. FCT continued until appropriate behavior persisted and destructive behavior failed to recur at baseline levels during extinction probes. The completion of FCT was followed by four challenges to the persistence of treatment effects conducted within mixed- or multiple-schedule designs: (a) extended extinction sessions (from 5 to 15 min), (b) introduction of a novel task, (c) removal of the microswitch and communication card, and (d) a mixed schedule of reinforcement in which both appropriate and destructive behavior produced reinforcement. The results showed that although FCT often resulted in quick reductions in destructive behavior and increases in appropriate behavior, destructive behavior often recurred during the extinction probes conducted during the initial treatment. When the effects of treatment persisted during the extinction probes, the remaining challenges to treatment effects resulted in only mild to moderate disruptions in behavior. These results are consistent with the quantitative predictions of behavioral momentum theory and may provide an alternative definition of maintenance as constituting behavioral persistence.

An Evaluation of Manding Across Functions Prior to Functional Communication Training.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether destructive behavior and manding were maintained by the same social reinforcers. A summary of 10 participants that met criteria for differentiated functional analysis and mand analysis results were included in this study. All participants were preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities who engaged in destructive behavior. All procedures were conducted in the participants' homes by their parent with investigator coaching. Functional analyses (attention, escape, and tangible test conditions) of destructive behavior and manding were conducted within multielement designs and showed social functions. The functional analysis of destructive behavior and functional analysis of mands identified the same reinforcers for only 2 of the 10 participants. The analysis of mands identified a reinforcer that was not identified by the analysis of destructive behavior for 5 participants (over-identification), did not identify a reinforcer that was identified by the analysis of destructive behavior for 2 participants (under-identification), and identified mixed reinforcers (combination of over-identification and under-identification) for 1 participant. Results suggest that the analysis of destructive behavior and the analysis of mands identified different reinforcers and are not interchangeable.

Conducting Functional Communication Training in Home Settings: A Case Study and Recommendations for Practitioners.

We coached a parent to conduct functional analysis and functional communication training (FCT) procedures in her home to reduce the destructive behavior displayed by her 2-year-old son. Descriptive assessment information and functional analysis results suggested that destructive behavior was maintained by escape from demands. After conducting a series of baseline probes, the parent implemented an FCT program to teach her son to comply with designated task requests and to mand for a break to play. Results showed that destructive behavior decreased and manding and independent task completion increased during FCT. Positive intervention outcomes were maintained for 1 year. Results are discussed with respect to developing an FCT program that is both efficient and acceptable for parents to implement in their homes.

Evaluation of Mand-Reinforcer Relations Following Long-Term Functional Communication Training.

The investigators evaluated the relation between mands and positive reinforcement in the form of parent attention following long-term in-home treatment with functional communication training (FCT) for destructive behavior. Participants were 3 five-year-old children (2 boys, 1 girl) with developmental disabilities who manded to obtain different levels of parent attention (Phase 1). To determine whether the children's rate of manding would vary based on the amount of reinforcement received, the investigators adjusted the duration of parent attention (12 s vs. 30 s) provided to each child for manding on an FR1 schedule (Phase 2) using a reversal design. All 3 children changed their rates of manding so that each child maintained consistent levels of reinforcement across Phase 2 conditions.