Dissection of the Blue-Light-Dependent Signal-Transduction Pathway Involved in Gametic Differentiation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Gametogenesis of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii may be viewed as a two-step process that is controlled by the environmental cues of nitrogen deprivation and blue light. Initiation of gametogenesis is induced by nitrogen deprivation, resulting in mating-incompetent pregametes, when cells are kept in the dark. For the completion of gametic differentiation light is required. Pregametes were treated with pharmacological compounds to influence the light-dependent conversion to mature gametes. Dibutyryl-cyclic 3[prime]5[prime] adenosinemonophosphate, papaverine, and genistein were found to inhibit the progression of gametogenesis in the light. Treatment of pregametes in the dark with either staurosporine or papaverine resulted in their conversion to mature gametes. Apparently, papaverine has different effects in the dark and in the light; the effect of staurosporine suggested that a protein kinase C-like component inhibits the conversion of pregametes to gametes, a block that normally is relieved by illumination. This hypothesis was corroborated by the observation that activators of protein kinase C, N-heptyl-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide, N- (6-phenylhexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide, and the phorbolester phorbol-12-myristate 13-acetate inhibited gametogenesis in the light. Genistein and dibutyryl-cyclic 3[prime]5[prime] adenosinemonophosphate were able to inhibit the dark activation caused by staurosporine treatment, suggesting that their targets work downstream from the "protein kinase C-like" kinase. Surprisingly, staurosporine and papaverine worked synergystically on the activation of pregametes in the dark.

Characterization of Blue Light Signal Transduction Chains That Control Development and Maintenance of Sexual Competence in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Blue light induces the differentiation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii pregametes to gametes. The light-induced conversion of pregametes to gametes is protein synthesis dependent and proceeds only after a lag phase. Upon incubation in the dark, gametes lost their mating ability, resulting in dark-inactivated gametes. Reillumination rapidly restored mating competence and this was shown to be independent of protein synthesis. Apparently, differentiation and maintenance of gametic competence are both regulated by light. Whether one or two light-activated signal pathways are involved was investigated using pharmacological compounds that affect signal transduction. Compounds that affected pregamete-to-gamete conversion affected the expression of a gamete-specific gene in a similar fashion. Other drugs affected only dark-inactivated gametes, suggesting that reactivating gametes requires a separate signaling pathway. Combined treatments provided evidence for the consecutive action of a phosphatase and a protein kinase C-like kinase in the light-induced reactivation process.

Loss of Avirulence and Reduced Pathogenicity of a Gamma-Irradiated Mutant of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici.

ABSTRACT The tomato Fusarium resistance gene I-2 confers resistance to F. oxy-sporum f. sp. lycopersici race 2, which expresses the corresponding aviru-lence gene avrI-2. To elucidate the molecular basis of this gene-for-gene interaction, we initiated a search for the avrI-2 gene. Gamma irradiation mutagenesis, using (137)Cs, was performed to generate an avrI-2 mutant of F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. To this end, a race 2 isolate was first transformed with a phleomycine resistance gene and a GUS marker gene in order to distinguish mutants from contaminating isolates. A total of 21,712 mutagenized colonies was tested for loss of avirulence on I-2-containing tomato seedlings. One mutant was selected that showed the expected loss of avirulence but, surprisingly, also showed reduced pathogenicity toward susceptible tomato plants. DNA analysis was subsequently used to visualize genomic changes in the mutant. Southern analysis on contour-clamped homogeneous electrophoretic field blots demonstrated a translocation of a 3.75-Mb chromosome in the mutant. Random amplified polymorphic DNA and amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis identified at least nine polymorphisms between the wild-type and mutant isolates. Most of these polymorphisms appeared as extra fragments in the mutant and contained repetitive DNA sequences.

Biological and Molecular Characterization of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici Divides Race 1 Isolates into Separate Virulence Groups.

ABSTRACT A collection of race 1 and race 2 isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici was screened for vegetative compatibility and characterized by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis to establish the identity and genetic diversity of the isolates. Comparison of RAPD profiles revealed two main groups that coincide with vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs). In addition, several single-member VCGs were identified that could not be grouped in one of the two main RAPD clusters. This suggests that F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici is a polyphyletic taxon. To assign avirulence genotypes to race 1 isolates, they were tested for their virulence on a small set of tomato lines (Lycopersicon esculentum), including line OT364. This line was selected because it shows resistance to race 2 isolates but, unlike most other race 2-resistant lines, susceptibility to race 1 isolates. To exclude the influence of other components than those related to the race-specific resistance response, we tested the virulence of race 1 isolates on a susceptible tomato that has become race 2 resistant by introduction of an I-2 transgene. The results show that both line OT364 and the transgenic line were significantly affected by four race 1 isolates, but not by seven other race 1 isolates nor by any race 2 isolates. This allowed a subdivision of race 1 isolates based on the presence or absence of an avirulence gene corresponding to the I-2 resistance gene. The data presented here support a gene-for-gene relationship for the interaction between F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici and its host tomato.

A promoter trap for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: development of a gene cloning method using 5' RACE-based probes.

A promoterless radial spoke protein RSP3 gene has been used to identify promoter regions in the genome of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The acceptor strain pf-14 arg7 was transformed with a linearized vector containing the ARG 7.8 gene as a selection marker and a promoterless RSP3 gene. The frequency at which the motility was restored in transformants varied from 2-3%. Several of these were motile only in ammonium-free medium, indicating that the procedure could be used to select inducible promoters. Transformation of nitrogen-starved cells produced about twice as many transformants which were only motile in ammonium-free medium. Since one of the tagging vectors contained an RSP3 gene with a hybridization flag in its 3' untranslated region, it was possible to estimate the size of the new RSP3 transcripts in transformants. The results suggested that in most cases a hybrid RNA was generated consisting of the tagged gene transcript and reporter gene RNA. By 5' RACE, these parts of the new transcripts were amplified and it was shown that the generated DNA fragments could be used to clone a tagged gene. One such example, gene 2BC9, is predicted to code for a mitochondrial matrix protein. The tagging procedure will be optimized for cloning genes induced by nitrogen starvation, the cue for gametogenesis.

Foxy: an active family of short interspersed nuclear elements from Fusarium oxysporum.

A novel family of short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) has been identified in Fusarium oxysporum. This family has been called Foxy. The feature that makes Foxy unique among SINEs is the presence of 5' terminal tetranucleotide repeats. Both the number and the sequence of these repeats vary between individual members of the family. The genome of F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici contains at least 160 copies of Foxy. In a mutant obtained upon gamma irradiation of a wild-type isolate, 13 new Foxy insertions were identified. These observations, together with the occurrence of many Foxy-specific polymorphisms between isolates within one vegetative incompatibility group and the presence of Foxy-specific transcripts in the fungus, indicate that Foxy is currently active and may contribute to the genetic variability of F. oxysporum. Since we have not been able to detect Foxy sequences by PCR analyses in other fungi, this novel family of SINEs seems to be confined to Fusarium species.

Molecular characterization of two light-induced, gamete-specific genes from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that encode hydroxyproline-rich proteins.

Gametic differentiation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a two-step process, which is controlled by the sequential action of the two extrinsic signals, nitrogen starvation and blue light. The gamete-specific genes GAS28 and GAS29 are expressed in the late phase of gametogenesis. Their light-induced expression is restricted to cells that have completed the first, nitrogen starvation-activated, phase of differentiation. A comparison of the two genes revealed striking similarities as well as differences. Their most prominent shared feature is an extended sequence homology of over 90% in their 5'-untranslated regions, suggesting a role in translational regulation. GAS28 and GAS29 both encode hydroxyproline-rich proteins (HRGPs) of very similar sizes that exhibit typical features of volvocalean cell wall constituents. GAS28 shows a high degree of homology with the Volvox pherophorin gene family, suggesting a relationship between these genes.

Genetic exchange of avirulence determinants and extensive karyotype rearrangements in parasexual recombinants of Fusarium oxysporum.

In order to genetically map and eventually isolate avirulence genes, parasexual crosses between different races of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici were performed by means of protoplast fusion. Two wild-type strains, race 1 Fol004 (A1a2a3) and race 3 Fol029 (a1a2A3), were transformed with phleomycin and hygromycin resistance genes, respectively. In total 32 fusion products were selected by screening for the presence of both marker genes. The presence of either avirulence gene A1 or A3 in the fusion products was determined by plant bioassays. Segregation of avirulence revealed a bias for the presence of A1. Two recombinants for the avirulence phenotype were observed, each with a new association of avirulence genes never observed to exist in the wild. Electrophoretic karyotype analysis revealed that chromosome patterns were different for all fusion products. Hybridization patterns using various probes indicated that chromosome rearrangements and recombination had occurred. Karyotype analysis of the two avirulence recombinants revealed hybrid karyotypes resulting from a massive exchange of parental DNA. This indicates that the present population of recombinants can be used for gene mapping in the asexual fungus F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici.

Tyrosine phosphatase signalling in a lower plant: cell-cycle and oxidative stress-regulated expression of the Chlamydomonas eugametos VH-PTP13 gene.

The first evidence for tyrosine phosphatase signalling pathways in plants is presented by characterizing a putative protein tyrosine phosphatase gene from the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas eugametos. This cDNA, referred to as VH-PTP13, contains an open reading frame specifying a protein with a molecular weight of 30.3 kDa, that has significant homology with a distinct group of dual-specificity phosphatases. The highest homology is found with CL-100, a human stress-response gene that regulates MAPkinase activity. The purified VH-PTP13 protein expressed in E. coli had phosphatase activity and inactivated MAPkinases from alfalfa and tobacco. Nondividing C. eugametos gametes did not express the VH-PTP13 gene whereas synchronously dividing vegetative cells only expressed VH-PTP13 in the early G1-phase of the cycle, implying a function there. When vegetative cells were subjected to oxidative stress, expression of the VH-PTP13 gene was strongly induced, analogous to the human CL-100 gene. Its potential role in plant signalling pathways is discussed.

The use of transgenic plants to understand transposition mechanisms and to develop transposon tagging strategies.

This review compares the activity of the plant transposable elements Ac, Tam3, En/Spm and Mu in heterologous plant species and in their original host. Mutational analysis of the autonomous transposable elements and two-element systems have supplied data that revealed some fundamental properties of the transposition mechanism. Functional parts of Ac and En/Spm were detected by in vitro binding studies of purified transposase protein and have been tested for their importance in the function of these transposable elements in heterologous plant species. Experiments that have been carried out to regulate the activity of the Ac transposable element are in progress and preliminary results have been compiled. Perspectives for manipulated transposable elements in transposon tagging strategies within heterologous plant species are discussed.

Trans-activation of an artificial dTam3 transposable element in transgenic tobacco plants.

In Antirrhinum majus only autonomous Tam3 transposons have been characterized. We investigated whether an artificial dTam3 element, with a deletion in the presumptive transposase coding region, can be trans-activated in tobacco by an activator Tam3 element, which was immobilized by the deletion of one inverted repeat. A phenotypic assay based on restored hygromycin resistance demonstrates that a dTam3 element harbouring a bacterial plasmid can be trans-activated with a low frequency. Molecular analysis confirms that the dTam3 element has been excised from the HPTII marker gene. Reintegration of the dTam3 element into the tobacco genome is detected only in one out of six hygromycin-resistant plants analysed. PCR analysis of empty donor sites shows that excision of the dTam3 element in tobacco results in rearrangements (deletions and additions), that have been shown to be characteristic of Tam3 excision in the original host Antirrhinum majus. This trans-activation assay allowed us to establish that, in contrast to what has been detected in Antirrhinum majus, a periodical temperature shift down to 15 degrees C does not enhance dTam3 transposition in regenerating tobacco calli.

Cloning of Petunia hybrida chloroplast DNA sequences capable of autonomous replication in yeast.

Sequences from Petunia hybrida chloroplast DNA which have the property to promote autonomous replication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae were cloned in vector YIp5. Seven cloned chloroplast DNA fragments are localized at one of two different sites on the chloroplast genome. One site, arsA was mapped on a 1.8 Kb fragment at position 27.0-28.8 Kb on the P. hybrida chloroplast genome. The plasmids containing this arsA are stable both in yeast and E. coli. The other site, arsB, was shown to be very unstable and is located either in the small single copy region close to the inverted repeat or just in the inverted repeat. The functioning of these sequences as a possible origin of replication in vivo is discussed.

The Asc locus for resistance to Alternaria stem canker in tomato does not encode the enzyme aspartate carbamoyltransferase.

The fungal disease resistance locus Alternaria stem canker (Asc) in tomato has been suggested to encode the enzyme aspartate carbamoyltransferase (ACTase). To test this hypothesis a segment of the tomato ACTase gene was amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using degenerate primers. The PCR product obtained was subsequently used to isolate an ACTase cDNA clone. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) linkage analysis showed that the ACTase gene and the Asc locus do not cosegregate. RFLP mapping positioned the ACTase gene on chromosome 11, while the Asc locus is located on chromosome 3. These results exclude the possibility that the ACTase protein is encoded by the Asc locus.

A comparative study of Tam3 and Ac transposition in transgenic tobacco and petunia plants.

Transposition of the Anthirrinum majus Tam3 element and the Zea mays Ac element has been monitored in petunia and tobacco plants. Plant vectors were constructed with the transposable elements cloned into the leader sequence of a marker gene. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated leaf disc transformation was used to introduce the transposable element constructs into plant cells. In transgenic plants, excision of the transposable element restores gene expression and results in a clearly distinguishable phenotype. Based on restored expression of the hygromycin phosphotransferase II (HPTII) gene, we established that Tam3 excises in 30% of the transformed petunia plants and in 60% of the transformed tobacco plants. Ac excises from the HPTII gene with comparable frequencies (30%) in both plant species. When the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene was used to detect transposition of Tam3, a significantly lower excision frequency (13%) was found in both plant species. It could be shown that deletion of parts of the transposable elements Tam3 and Ac, removing either one of the terminal inverted repeats (TIR) or part of the presumptive transposase coding region, abolished the excision from the marker genes. This demonstrates that excision of the transposable element Tam3 in heterologous plant species, as documented for the autonomous element Ac, also depends on both properties. Southern blot hybridization shows the expected excision pattern and the reintegration of Tam3 and Ac elements into the genome of tobacco plants.

FEM1, a Fusarium oxysporum glycoprotein that is covalently linked to the cell wall matrix and is conserved in filamentous fungi.

As part of an investigation of the cell wall structure of plant pathogenic, filamentous fungi, we set out to characterize covalently bound cell wall glycoproteins (CWPs) of the tomato pathogen Fusarium oxysporum. N-terminal sequencing of an abundant 60-kDa CWP led to the cloning of the corresponding gene, which we have designated FEM1 (Fusarium extracellular matrix protein). The gene contains an ORF encoding a primary translation product of 212 amino acids, including an N-terminal 17-amino acid secretion signal sequence. Furthermore, FEM1p contains two potential N-glycosylation sites, and is rich in serine and threonine residues (29%) that could serve as O-glycosyl addition sites. At its C-terminus the protein contains a 22-amino acid sequence with the characteristics of a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor addition signal. A mutant FEM1 protein lacking this GPI anchor addition signal is not retained in the fungal cell wall but released into the culture medium, indicating that in the wild-type protein this sequence functions to anchor the protein to the extracellular matrix. Southern analysis shows that FEM1 is present as a single-copy gene in all formae speciales of F. oxysporum tested and in F. solani. Database searches show that FEM1p homologous sequences are present in other filamentous fungi as well.

Expression of the Fusarium resistance gene I-2 colocalizes with the site of fungal containment.

The tomato resistance gene I-2 is one of at least six members of a gene family that are expressed at low levels in the roots, stems and leaves of young tomato plants. Plants transformed with constructs containing a functional I-2 promoter fused to the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene were used in detailed expression studies. Highest GUS activity was found in stems of young tomato plants. Histochemical analysis revealed that the I-2 promoter drives expression of the reporter gene in vascular tissue of fruits, leaves, stems and mature roots. In younger roots, expression was most abundant at the base of lateral root primordia. Microscopical analysis of young tomato plants revealed expression in tissue surrounding the xylem vessels. We show that in resistant plants, fungal growth into this region of the vascular tissue is prevented, suggesting a correlation with the I-2-mediated resistance response.

Domain conservation in several volvocalean cell wall proteins.

Based on our previous work demonstrating that (SerPro)x epitopes are common to extensin-like cell wall proteins in Chlamydomonas' reinhardtii, we looked for similar proteins in the distantly related species C. eugametos. Using a polyclonal antiserum against a (SerPro)10 oligopeptide, we found distinct sets of stage-specific polypeptides immunoprecipitated from in vitro translations of C. eugametos RNA. Screening of a C. eugametos cDNA expression library with the antiserum led to the isolation of a cDNA (WP6) encoding a (SerPro)x-rich multidomain wall protein. Analysis of a similarly selected cDNA (VSP-3) from a C. reinhardtii cDNA expression library revealed that it also coded for a (SerPro)x-rich multidomain wall protein. The C-terminal rod domains of VSP-3 and WP6 are highly homologous, while the N-terminal domains are dissimilar; however, the N-terminal domain of VSP-3 is homologous to the globular domain of a cell wall protein from Volvox carteri. Exon shuffling might be responsible for this example of domain conservation over 350 million years of volvocalean cell wall protein evolution.

Novel DNA structures resulting from dTam3 excision in tobacco.

A Tam3 two-element system has been designed by combining an immobilized Tam3 element with a non-autonomous dTam3 element inserted into the HPT gene. The phenotypic assay employed, restored hygromycin resistance, indicated that trans-activation of the non-autonomous dTam3 element occurred. Molecular analyses of the excision sites revealed that the ends of the dTam3 element remain in the empty donor sites. The predominant consequence of this type of excision appears to be that excised fragments fail to re-integrate into the tobacco genome. Only one case of dTam3 re-integration could be detected. The ends of this element had been degraded upon integration into the tobacco genome. Either the altered structure of the Tam3 derivatives or tobacco host factors are influencing the trans-activation of a dTam3 element, resulting in aberrant excision.

Construction of a mitotic linkage map of Fusarium oxysporum based on Foxy-AFLPs.

Construction of the first mitotic linkage map of the asexual fungus Fusarium oxysporum, based on a population of 32 parasexual fusion products, is reported. Molecular markers were developed using a modified AFLP technique which combines a Foxy-specific primer with standard adapter primers. The retroposon Foxy is abundantly present and highly variable in location in F. oxysporum isolates: 43% of the Foxy-AFLP markers tested appeared to be polymorphic between the strains Fol004 and Fol029. Of the 102 Foxy markers obtained, 83 segregated in a 1:1 ratio. The remaining fragments showed a skewed segregation pattern in which the Fol004 derived Foxy fragments were overrepresented. Foxy markers were observed to be clustered, suggesting that active Foxy elements may not transpose very far from their initial insertion sites, or that hotspots for insertion may exist. Linkage analysis revealed 23 linkage groups. Physical linkage between segregating markers predicted to be 20 cM apart was confirmed, indicating that the mitotic linkage map is reliable.