Pseudophosphorylation of the smooth muscle 20 000 dalton myosin light chain. An artifact due to protein modification.

The use of isoelectric focusing as a technique for quantifying the stoichiometry of phosphorylation of the 20 kDa smooth muscle myosin light chain (LC20) was found to overestimate true levels of phosphorylation under certain conditions due to the occurrence of LC20 charge modification. Modification of unphosphorylated LC20 produced a band of 'pseudophosphorylated' LC20 which co-focused with phosphorylated LC20. LC20 modification was found to occur when samples were subjected to electrophoresis under nonreducing conditions in the presence of ammonium persulfate. The overestimation of LC20 phosphorylation due to pseudophosphorylation was examined for both purified myosin and extracts from contracting smooth muscle and found to be greatest at low levels of LC20 phosphorylation. A simple theoretical model was developed which accurately predicted the effects of charge modification on the measured level of phosphorylation. LC20 modification was shown to be completely eliminated by the inclusion of dithiothreitol in extraction buffers and the pre-electrophoresis of sodium thioglycolate into gels.

Membrane localization of myocardial type II cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity.

Crude cardiac membrane vesicles were separated into subfractions of sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum. The subfractions were used to determine the origin and type of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity present in myocardial membranes. A cyclic AMP-binding protein of molecular weight 55,000 was covalently labeled with the photoaffinity probe 8-azido adenosine 3',5'-mono[32P]phosphate, and found to copurify with the (Na+ + K+)-ATPase activity of sarcolemma, and away from the (Ca2+ + K+)-ATPase activity of sarcoplasmic reticulum. Endogenous cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity also copurified with sarcolemma. Protein substrates phosphorylated by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity had apparent molecular weights of 21,000 and 8000 and were present in both sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum. However, while addition of cyclic AMP alone resulted in phosphorylation of sarcolemma proteins, both cyclic AMP and exogenous, soluble cyclic AMP-dependent kinase were required for phosphorylation of sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins. Addition of the calcium-binding protein, calmodulin, to either sarcolemma or sarcoplasmic reticulum resulted in phosphorylation of the 21,000 and 8000-dalton proteins, as well. The results suggest that cardiac sarcolemma contains an intrinsic type II cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity that is not present in sarcoplasmic reticulum. On the other hand, Ca2+- and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity is present in both sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Molecular cardiology: new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular disease.

This review summarizes some of the major advances in the investigation of molecular mechanisms underlying both normal and abnormal cardiovascular function. Four major areas are highlighted including cardiac muscle, the blood vessel, atherosclerosis and thrombosis/thrombolysis. The remarkable strides in understanding multifactorial diseases such as atherosclerosis, and the development of innovative new therapies such as the use of thrombolytic agents produced by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology, are noted. Moreover, it is concluded that the past decade of basic research has provided a solid framework for improvements in the diagnosis and therapy of other forms of cardiovascular disease as well. An evaluation of current trends in basic cardiovascular research suggests that diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to disease will increasingly target specific molecular processes underlying the pathophysiologic state.

Local delivery of biodegradable microparticles containing colchicine or a colchicine analogue: effects on restenosis and implications for catheter-based drug delivery.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to evaluate the delivery efficiency, intramural retention and antirestenotic efficacy of soluble colchicine or colchicine analogue delivered into the arterial wall after angioplasty as well as the efficacy of these medications after prolonged local release from biodegradable microparticles. BACKGROUND: Local delivery of pharmacologic agents is a potential treatment for restenosis. However, the delivery efficiency of the technique and the choice of agent to modulate cellular proliferation are unknown. It was hypothesized that restenosis would be unaffected by colchicine or a hydrophobic colchicine analogue with short intramural retention, whereas it would be reduced after prolonged local release. METHODS: Rabbit atherosclerotic femoral arteries underwent angioplasty followed by local delivery. Delivery efficiency and intramural retention of 3H-colchicine were evaluated. The effect of agents in soluble formulation or released from microparticles on angiographic and morphometric restenosis was evaluated at 2 weeks and compared with that in the control groups (angioplasty only and local infusion of carrier solution). RESULTS: Delivery of efficiency was 0.01% and intramural retention < 24 h. Neither soluble colchicine formulation reduced restenosis. Microparticles releasing the colchicine analogue reduced restenosis compared with control and colchicine microparticles but not angioplasty alone (p = 0.002). Delivery outside the artery was observed, and the long-term release of both colchicine resulted in toxicity to the adjacent musculature. CONCLUSIONS: Colchicine or the colchicine analogue did not reduce restenosis, although the long-term local release of the colchicine analogue reduced neointimal proliferation resulting from local delivery. Local delivery of cytotoxic agents with insufficient vascular specificity may be limited by toxicity to adjacent tissues resulting from a larger than expected delivery area and prolonged agent retention.

Methods and devices for local drug delivery in coronary and peripheral arteries.

New developments in catheter design, molecular biology, and polymer chemistry have made it possible to deliver pharmaceutical agents and genetic material directly into the arterial wall to modulate the response to injury. Several local drug delivery catheters of various designs in addition to biodegradable and coated stents are currently being evaluated as devices to facilitate local delivery of agents into the arterial wall. Approaches to locally sustained delivery include the controlled release of medications, the affinity-based delivery of medications administered systemically but accumulated locally, and gene therapy.

The calpain-calpastatin system in vascular smooth muscle.

Vascular smooth muscle contains large amounts of the Ca(2+)-dependent protease calpain II. In this study, we compared bovine aortic muscle (muscle phenotype) to cultured bovine aortic cells of smooth muscle origin (modulated phenotype) with respect to major constituents of the calpain-calpastatin system. Bovine aortic muscle contained only calpain II by activity measurements, Western blot of tissue extracts and Northern blot of poly(A)+ RNA. On the other hand, using the same methodologies, both calpains I and II as well as the 110 kDa inhibitor protein, calpastatin, were identified in cultured bovine aortic cells of smooth muscle origin. We conclude that the phenotypic state of smooth muscle cells is associated with differential expression of major components of the calpain-calpastatin system. Moreover, bovine aortic muscle is the only tissue identified to date that contains calpain II exclusively.

Identification of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation sequences in mammalian h-Caldesmon.

h-Caldesmon in vascular smooth muscle is phosphorylated in response to pharmacologic stimulation. Although many kinases phosphorylate h-caldesmon, in vitro, the responsible kinase in intact tissue is unknown. The sites of phosphorylation in caldesmon from intact canine aortas have recently been identified and are consensus sequences for a proline-directed protein kinase. In this study, we investigated the phosphorylation of h-caldesmon by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Purified, recombinant MAPK phosphorylated porcine stomach h-caldesmon to a stoichiometry approaching 2 mol phosphate/mol protein. Phosphorylated h-caldesmon was subjected to proteolysis and the phosphopeptides were purified by high performance liquid chromatography. Two major phosphopeptides were identified and sequenced. These two peptides, VTS*PTKV and S*PAPK, were identical to the sequences of the sites phosphorylated in intact tissue. Antibodies to several enzymes implicated in the cascade of activation of MAPK were used to evaluate vascular smooth muscle by Western blotting. All components were found to be present. These data suggest that MAPK can function as a 'caldesmon kinase' in vascular smooth muscle.

Phosphorylation sequences in h-caldesmon from phorbol ester-stimulated canine aortas.

The high molecular weight form of caldesmon (h-caldesmon) is phosphorylated in vascular smooth muscle. The stoichiometry of caldesmon phosphorylation increases in response to stimulation of the muscle by several contractile agonists; however, the responsible kinase has not been identified. In this study, we have sequenced the phosphopeptides prepared from h-caldesmon phosphorylated in vitro by protein kinase C (PKC) as well as the phosphopeptides prepared from caldesmon phosphorylated in intact canine aortas that were stimulated to contract with PDBu. PKC phosphorylated three sites located in the C terminus: GSS*LKIEE, AEFLNKS*VQK and NLWEKQS*VDK, while h-caldesmon from intact tissue was phosphorylated at two separate sites also in the C terminus: VTS*PTKV and S*PAPK. By comparison to known substrate consensus sequences for various protein kinases these data suggest that h-caldesmon is directly phosphorylated by a proline-directed protein kinase and not by PKC.

Role of calcium and cyclic adenosine 3':5' monophosphate in regulating smooth muscle contraction. Mechanisms of excitation-contraction coupling in smooth muscle.

Caclium initiates smooth muscle contraction by activating an enzyme, myosin light chain kinase. This enzyme catalyzes the transfer of phosphate from adenosine triphosphate to the 20,000 dalton light chain of myosin. In its phosphorylated form myosin interacts with actin to produce muscle contraction. The mechanism by which calcium activates myosin kinase requires (1) the binding of calcium to a 16,500 dalton calcium-binding protein (calmodulin), and (2) the binding of calmodulin-calcium to a 125,000 dalton catalytic subunit. This two protein complex is the active form of myosin light chain kinase. Smooth muscle relaxation is mediated by cyclic adenosine 3':5' monophosphate (cyclic AMP). One nechanism by which the latter may exert a direct effect on actin-myosin interaction is through the activation of a cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase that can phosphorylate the 125,000 dalton component of myosin light chain kinase. Phosphorylation of myosin light chain kinase decreases the activity of the enzyme, thus favoring the unphosphorylated form of myosin, which cannot interact with actin to produce smooth muscle contraction.

Identification of a latent Ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II phosphorylation site in vascular calpain II.

The Ca(2+)-dependent protease, calpain II, isolated from vascular smooth muscle was found to be a substrate for Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM kinase II) in vitro. Phosphorylation was dependent upon prior autolysis of the regulatory subunit of calpain II. The stoichiometry of phosphorylation of native, unautolyzed calpain II was 0.02 +/- 0.01 mol PO4/mol enzyme while for autolyzed calpain, the stoichiometry was 1.04 +/- 0.15 mol PO4/mol enzyme. All phosphate was incorporated into the 76 kDa catalytic subunit of calpain II. A single serine residue in domain III of the catalytic subunit was identified as the phosphate acceptor: RGS*TAGGCR. Phosphorylation doubled enzyme activity measured both as proteolysis of an exogenous substrate (alpha-casein) as well as by intermolecular catalytic subunit autolysis. The effects of phosphorylation could be reversed by dephosphorylation using a type IIA phosphoprotein phosphatase. These results demonstrate that calpain II possesses a latent CaM kinase II phosphorylation site that is unmasked by autolysis.

Effects of purified myosin light chain kinase on myosin light chain phosphorylation and catecholamine secretion in digitonin-permeabilized chromaffin cells.

Many non-muscle cells including chromaffin cells contain actin and myosin. The 20,000 dalton light chain subunits of myosin can be phosphorylated by a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent enzyme, myosin light chain kinase. In tissues other than striated muscle, light chain phosphorylation is required for actin-induced myosin ATPase activity. The possibility that actin and myosin are involved in catecholamine secretion was investigated by determining whether increased phosphorylation in the presence of [gamma-32P]ATP of myosin light chain by myosin light chain kinase enhances secretion from digitonin-treated chromaffin cells. In the absence of exogenous myosin light chain kinase, 1 microM Ca2+ caused a 30-40% enhancement of the phosphorylation of a 20 kDa protein. This protein was identified on 2-dimensional gels as myosin light chain by its comigration with purified myosin light chain. Purified myosin light chain kinase (400 micrograms/ml) in the presence of calmodulin (10 microM) caused little or no enhancement of myosin light chain phosphorylation in the absence of Ca2+ in digitonin-treated cells. In the presence of 1 microM Ca2+, myosin light chain kinase (400 micrograms/ml) caused an approximately two-fold increase in myosin light chain phosphorylation in digitonin-treated cells in 5 min. The phosphorylation required permeabilization of the cells by digitonin and occurred within the cells rather than in the medium. Myosin light chain kinase-induced phosphorylation of myosin light chain was maximal at 1 microM Ca2+. Under identical conditions to those of the phosphorylation experiments, secretion was unaltered by myosin light chain kinase. The experiments indicate that the phosphorylation of myosin light chain by myosin light chain kinase is not a limiting factor in secretion in digitonin-treated chromaffin cells and suggest that the activation of myosin is not directly involved in secretion from the cells. The experiments also demonstrate the feasibility of investigation of effects of exogenously added proteins on secretion in digitonin-treated cells.

Peripheral vascular complications following coronary interventional procedures.

We report the incidence, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of peripheral vascular complications following coronary interventional procedures as reviewed in the English-language literature. Peripheral vascular complications include hematomas, pseudoaneurysms, arteriovenous fistulae, acute arterial occlusions, cholesterol emboli, and infections that occur with an overall incidence of 1.5-9%. Major predictors of such complications following coronary interventional procedures include advanced age, repeat percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, female gender, and peripheral vascular disease. Minor predictors include level of anticoagulation, use of thrombolytic agents, elevated creatinine levels, low platelet counts, longer periods of anticoagulation, and use of increased sheath size. Ultrasound-guided compression repair of pseudoaneurysms and arteriovenous fistulae are discussed, as are newer methods of treatment such as hemostatic puncture closure devices. Anticipation and early recognition of possible peripheral vascular complications in conjunction with careful attention to the optimal activated clotting time for sheath removal following coronary interventional procedures may translate into fewer vascular complications as well as into shorter and less costly hospital stays.

A radioimmunoblotting method for measuring myosin light chain phosphorylation levels in smooth muscle.

A method for measuring the molar stoichiometry of myosin light chain phosphorylation in intact smooth muscle has been developed. Antiserum to the 20,000-Da light chains of bovine aortic smooth muscle was harvested from rabbits and used to label light chains by a radioimmunoblotting procedure. In the initial characterization it was found that the 20,000-Da light chains could be transferred by electroblotting from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose paper with an efficiency of approximately 80% over a protein range of 0.1-5.0 micrograms. At a dilution of 1:500, the unpurified light chain antiserum required approximately 10-12 h at 22 degrees C to reach equilibrium binding to the transferred light chains. Moreover, equilibrium labeling of the light chain-antibody complex with 125I-protein A required 4-6 h of incubation at 22 degrees C. By using these conditions, a radioimmunoassay for the 20,000-Da light chains was developed that was linear over a protein range of 0.1-5.0 micrograms (5-250 pmol). As little as 20 ng of light chains could be measured if a second antibody procedure (goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G Fab fragments) was used. Phosphorylated and unphosphorylated myosin light chains were separated by glycerol-urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This procedure, combined with radioimmunoblot, gave similar estimates of phosphorylation levels when compared with direct assay for phosphate or scanning of Coomassie blue-stained gels. Moreover, when applied to intact uterine smooth muscle, the glycerol-urea gel radioimmunoblot gave values of myosin light chain phosphorylation for relaxed and contracted muscles that were not statistically different from those obtained with a two-dimensional electrophoretic method.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Human platelet myosin light chain kinase requires the calcium-binding protein calmodulin for activity.

In an actomyosin fraction isolated from human platelets, phosphorylation of the 20,000-dalton light chain of myosin is stimulated by calcium and the calcium-binding protein calmodulin. The enzyme catalyzing this phosphorylation has been isolated by using calmodulin-affinity chromatography. Platelet myosin light chain kinase activity was monitored throughout the isolation procedures by using the 20,000-dalton smooth muscle myosin light chain purified from turkey gizzards as substrate. The partially purified myosin kinase requires both calcium and calmodulin for activity and has a specific activity of 3.1 mumol of phosphate transferred to the 20,000-dalton light chain per mg of kinase per min under optimal assay conditions. Km values determined for ATP and myosin light chains are 121 microM and 18 microM, respectively. Of several substrates surveyed as phosphate acceptors (alpha-casein, histone II-A, phosphorylase b, protamine, histone V-S, and phosvitin), only the 20,000-dalton myosin light chain is phosphorylated at a significant rate. These results suggest that platelet myosin light chain kinase is a calcium-dependent enzyme and that the requirement for calcium is mediated by the calcium-binding protein calmodulin.

Effect of L-alpha-phosphatidylinositol on a vascular smooth muscle Ca2+-dependent protease. Reduction of the Ca2+ requirement for autolysis.

Vascular smooth muscle contains large amounts of a Ca2+-dependent protease. Similar to a Ca2+-dependent protease previously purified from chicken gizzard smooth muscle (Hathaway, D. R., Werth, D. K., and Haeberle, J. R. (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257, 9072-9077), the mammalian vascular muscle protease is a heterodimer consisting of 76,000- and 30,000-dalton subunits (IIa). The enzyme can undergo autolysis in the presence of Ca2+ to produce a smaller species consisting of 76,000- and 18,000-dalton subunits (IIb). Autolysis greatly reduces the Ca2+ dependence of catalytic activity. The autolytic species, IIb, was approximately 23-fold more sensitive to Ca2+ (K0.5 = 39 microM) than the native enzyme, IIa (K0.5 = 891 microM). In this communication, we report that phosphatidylinositol and to a lesser extent one metabolic derivative, dioleoylglycerol, stimulate autolysis of the vascular Ca2+-dependent protease by reducing the Ca2+ for autolysis from K0.5 = 680 microM in the absence of lipid to K0.5 = 87 microM in the presence of both phosphatidylinositol and dioleoylglycerol. Moreover, the reduction in the Ca2+ requirement for autolysis produced by the phosphatidylinositol was antagonized by the phospholipid-binding drug, trifluoperazine. In addition, the effect of phosphatidylinositol was specific for autolysis, and none of several phospholipids or derivatives tested altered the Ca2+ dependence or maximal rate for protein degradation of the autolytic product, IIb. Our results suggest that autolysis may be an important initial step in the activation of the Ca2+-dependent protease in vascular smooth muscle and that this step may be regulated by a combination of Ca2+ and phosphatidylinositol.

Selective purification of the 20,000-Da light chains of smooth muscle myosin.

The 20,000-Da light chains of gizzard smooth muscle myosin have been purified to homogeneity. Actomyosin, prepared by MgATP extraction of myofibrils, was denatured in 8 M urea, 1 M guanidine HCl, and 0.05% sodium dodecyl sulfate. Myosin heavy chains were precipitated with ethanol and the light chain enriched fraction was dialyzed and subjected to chromatography on DEAE-Sephacel. Fractions containing the 20,000-Da light chains were further purified by hydrophobic chromatography on phenyl-Sepharose. The 20,000-Da light chains eluted at low ionic strength from the phenyl-Sepharose column were judged to be greater than 95% pure by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and contained only 0.04 mol of phosphate/mol of light chain. The yield of light chains was calculated to be 219 +/- 17 mg/kg of starting gizzard smooth muscle. This method may be useful for preparation of homogeneous 20,000-Da smooth muscle myosin light chains in the quantities necessary for study of contractile systems.

Distribution of isoelectric variants of the 17,000-dalton myosin light chain in mammalian smooth muscle.

Isoelectric focusing of purified vascular smooth muscle myosin revealed two variants of the 17,000-dalton light chain subunits. The isoelectric points of the light chain variants were determined to be 4.13 (LC17a) and 4.19 (LC17b). Tryptic peptide maps of the two species of light chain generated by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography disclosed small but obvious differences in peptide composition while amino acid analyses of the variants were quite similar. Two-dimensional electrophoresis of extracts from various mammalian smooth muscles revealed tissue-specific differences in the relative content of LC17a and LC17b. Vascular (aorta, carotid, and pulmonary artery) muscles and tracheal smooth muscle contained both light chain variants while smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and jejunum) contained LC17a only. The actin-activated Mg2+-ATPase activities of both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated stomach (LC17b = 0) and aortic (LC17b = 40%) myosins were compared. In the presence of saturating tropomyosin, a 2-fold difference in Vmax was measured: phosphorylated, aortic, 0.119 +/- 0.009 versus stomach, 0.239 +/- 0.012 mumol of PO4 liberated/min/mg of myosin; nonphosphorylated, aortic, 0.065 +/- 0.004 versus stomach, 0.123 +/- 0.004 mumol of PO4 liberated/min/mg of myosin. In addition, the Vmax of myosin subfragment-1 ATPase from bovine aortic, pulmonary artery, and stomach myosins (LC17b contents, 40, 20, and 0%, respectively) was found to decrease in direct proportion to the LC17b content. Our results suggest that isoforms of the 17,000-dalton light chain subunits of mammalian smooth muscle myosin could play an important role in modulating actomyosin ATPase activity.

Identification of major autolytic cleavage sites in the regulatory subunit of vascular calpain II. A comparison of partial amino-terminal sequences to deduced sequence from complementary DNA.

Purified calpain II from vascular smooth muscle is a heterodimer consisting of catalytic (Mr = 76,000) and regulatory (Mr = 30,000) subunits. In the presence of Ca2+, the regulatory subunit undergoes stepwise autolysis resulting in enzyme activation. By slowing autoproteolysis, we identified major autolytic intermediates of the regulatory subunit. Gas-phase sequencing of the regulatory subunit and its autolytic fragments revealed that the NH2-terminus of the Mr = 30,000 form was blocked, whereas each fragment yielded a unique amino acid sequence, suggesting that autolysis proceeds in an NH2- to COOH-terminal direction. By comparison of actual amino acid sequences of autolytic cleavage intermediates to the full sequence deduced from cDNA, we have identified the major autolytic cleavage sites. Three different peptide bonds were cleaved, with neutral amino acids predominating on both sides of the peptide bond hydrolyzed. Importantly, leucine or isoleucine was identified in the second position upstream from the cleavage site in all three autolytic sequences. The presence of an upstream leucine residue in the autolytic cleavage sequence is reminiscent of the structure of potent microbial and synthetic peptide inhibitors of calpain.