Virological outcomes of various first-line ART regimens in patients harbouring HIV-1 E157Q integrase polymorphism: a multicentre retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) are recommended as first-line ART for people living with HIV (PLWH) in most guidelines. The INSTI-resistance-associated mutation E157Q, a highly prevalent (2%-5%) polymorphism of the HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus type 1) integrase gene, has limited data on optimal first-line ART regimens. We assessed the virological outcomes of various first-line ART regimens in PLWH with E157Q in real-world settings. METHODS: A multicentre retrospective observational study was conducted on PLWH who underwent integrase genotypic drug-resistance testing before ART initiation between 2008 and 2019 and were found to have E157Q. Viral suppression (<50 copies/mL) rate at 24 and 48 weeks, time to viral suppression and time to viral rebound (≥100 copies/mL) were compared among the first-line ART regimens. RESULTS: E157Q was detected in 167 (4.1%) of 4043 ART-naïve PLWH. Among them, 144 had available clinical data after ART initiation with a median follow-up of 1888 days. Forty-five started protease inhibitors + 2 NRTIs (PI group), 33 started first-generation INSTI (raltegravir or elvitegravir/cobicistat) + 2 NRTIs (INSTI-1 group), 58 started once-daily second-generation INSTI (dolutegravir or bictegravir) + 2 NRTIs (INSTI-2 group) and eight started other regimens. In the multivariate analysis, the INSTI-2 group showed similar or favourable outcomes compared with the PI group for viral suppression rates, time to viral suppression and time to viral rebound. Two cases in the INSTI-1 group experienced virological failure. CONCLUSIONS: The general guideline recommendation of second-generation INSTI-based first-line ART for most PLWH is also applicable to PLWH harbouring E157Q.

Full-genome analysis of hepatitis C virus in HIV-coinfected hemophiliac Japanese patients.

AIM: More than 1400 Japanese hemophiliacs acquired HIV infection around 1983 through contaminated blood products imported from the USA, most of whom also acquired hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. To delineate the HCV genetic relations in HIV-coinfected hemophiliacs, we analyzed stocked plasma samples of the patients seen at the largest referral center for HIV care in Japan. METHODS: Hepatitis C virus full-genome sequences were amplified and determined using next-generation sequencing, and genotyping and phylogenetic analyses of these sequences were carried out. The results of these hemophiliacs were compared with those of previously studied HIV-coinfected Japanese non-hemophiliacs who had undergone similar analysis of HCV full-genome sequences. RESULTS: From 1997 to the end of 2017, 72 HIV-infected Japanese hemophiliacs regularly visited our outpatient clinic. Of these, 51 patients had detectable plasma HCV-RNA. The HCV full genome was successfully amplified and sequenced in 50 patients. Not only HCV genotypes 1b (28%) and 2a (6%), which are common in Japan, but also HCV genotypes 1a (32%) and 3a (22%) were identified at high frequency. A single case of intergenotypic recombinant form (2b/1a) and a single case of mixed infection (1a and 3a) were also identified. Each sequence derived from hemophiliacs was more than 0.05 genetic distance away from the other sequences in phylogenetic analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Various HCV genotypes were identified in Japanese hemophiliacs, a finding that reflects the HCV genotypic distribution in the USA. The genetic distance among them are the results of viral evolution in each patient plus HCV genetic diversity in the USA.

High plasma concentrations of dolutegravir in patients with ABCG2 genetic variants.

The ATP-binding cassette transporters B1 (ABCB1) and G2 (ABCG2) are both expressed in the intestine and known as efflux transporters of drugs. Dolutegravir was identified recently as a substrate of both ABCB1 and ABCG2. This study aimed to determine the relations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms of ABCB1 and ABCG2 genes and plasma dolutegravir concentrations. Plasma samples were obtained from 42 HIV-1-infected patients treated with dolutegravir-containing regimens 0.5-4 h after dolutegravir dosing. Plasma dolutegravir concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Genomic DNA was isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Genotyping of allelic variants of ABCB1 1236 C>T (rs1128503), 2677 G>T/A (rs2032582), 3435 C>T (rs1045642), 4036 A>G (rs3842), and ABCG2 421 C>A (rs2231142) was performed using the TaqMan drug metabolism assays. None of the genotypes in ABCB1 1236 C>T, 2677 G>T/A, 3435 C>T, and 4036 A>G correlated with plasma dolutegravir concentration. In contrast, the mean peak plasma concentration of dolutegravir was significantly higher in the genotypes of ABCG2 421 AA (5002 ng/ml, n=3) compared with the genotypes of ABCG2 421 CC (2569 ng/ml, n=22) and ABCG2 421 CA (2479 ng/ml, n=17) (P=0.0005). The speculated peak level of plasma dolutegravir concentration was significantly higher in ABCG2 genetic variant holders, probably, at least in part, because of low expression levels of efflux transporters in the intestines associated with these genetic variants.

Rilpivirine resistance mutation E138K in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase predisposed by prevalent polymorphic mutations.

BACKGROUND: Rilpivirine is listed as a recommended or alternative key drug in the current ART guidelines. E138K in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) is a primary mutation in resistance to rilpivirine, although in vitro experiments showed it confers only <3-fold resistance. An unidentified mechanism could amplify resistance to rilpivirine conferred by E138K. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to reveal the mechanism amplifying rilpivirine resistance conferred by E138K. PATIENTS AND METHODS: HIV-1 RT sequences were compared in patients who failed rilpivirine-containing ART virologically. The effects of mutations commonly identified with E138K on rilpivirine susceptibility were analysed by using recombinant HIV-1 variants. RESULTS: Rilpivirine-containing ART was introduced in 162 HIV-1-infected patients at the outpatient clinic of the AIDS Clinical Center (National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan) between May 2012 and June 2015. Virological treatment failure occurred in six of these patients. E138K emerged in three patients while other rilpivirine resistance mutations emerged in the other three patients. I135T/L were identified in only three patients with E138K and existed before the introduction of rilpivirine-containing ART. Analysis of recombinant HIV-1 variants indicated that E138K conferred low-level rilpivirine resistance and that coexistence of I135T/L with E138K amplified the resistance. CONCLUSIONS: I135T/L, escape mutations from HLA-B*51/52-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which are prevalent in Japan, may predispose HIV-1 to harbour E138K upon failure of rilpivirine-containing ART. The mutation patterns of drug resistance may vary due to baseline polymorphic mutations.

Identification of new circulating recombinant form of HIV-1 CRF139_02B in Japan, and search for the origin.

Many circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) of HIV-1 have been reported, resulting in complex molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 infection. In this study, we newly identified CRF139_02B in Japan from 4 cases of anti-retroviral therapy naïve people living with HIV. Near full-length genome sequences of CRF139_02B were determined using Illumina MiSeq. Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) revealed that there were several sequences having the same breakpoints as CRF139_02B in the UK and Nepal, though its full-length genome sequences were not available. Maximum clade credibility tree analysis using the region of protease and reverse transcriptase of HIV- 1 estimated that the time to the most recent common ancestor of CRF139_02B variants found in Japan was 2017.6 (95% highest posterior density interval: 2015.9-2019.3), and that among the UK, Nepal, and Japan was 2010.4 (2007.8- 2012.5). These results suggested that CRF139_02B circulated in Japan recently and domestically. Furthermore, the origin of CRF139_02B could be in the UK. Because there is a possibility that further international circulation of CRF139_02B may be observed in the near future, continuous monitoring of HIV-1 molecular epidemiology will be needed.

Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance and phylogenetic analysis of HIV-1 among antiretroviral therapy-naïve patients in Northern Vietnam from 2019 to 2022.

Since the rapid expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV, transmitted drug resistance (TDR) has become a major concern in Vietnam. HIV services there are transitioning to be covered by social insurance. Access to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is being expanded to tackle the growing HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was conducted at 10 ART facilities in Northern Vietnam from 9th December 2019 to 9th June 2022 to investigate the prevalence and pattern of TDR among ART-naïve people living with HIV (PLWH). TDR mutations were defined according to the World Health Organization 2009 List of Mutations for Surveillance of Transmitted Drug Resistant HIV Strains. Mutation transmission dynamics and TDR clusters were investigated via phylogenetic analysis. We enrolled 391 ART-naïve PLWH. The overall TDR prevalence was 4.6%, with an annual prevalence of 6.0% in 2019/2020, 4.8% in 2021, and 1.3% in 2022. TDR mutations to non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (2.8%), including K103N were the most common. Less commonly, the protease inhibitor-associated mutation M46I and mutations to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, including M184V/ I, were observed. CRF01_AE was the most common subtype (77.0%). CRF07_BC (14.3%), which had been rare in Vietnam, was also observed. No genetic association was observed between HIV-1 sequences with TDR mutations. In conclusion, the overall prevalence of TDR was stably low in this region. The phylogenetic tree suggests that TDR clusters have not formed. Continuous monitoring of HIV TDR and strains is crucial to maintaining ART and PrEP efficacy.

Identification of New Circulating Recombinant Form of HIV-1 CRF127_07109 in Northern Vietnam.

Some candidates of a new circulating recombinant form (CRF) of HIV-1 were found in northern Vietnam in our previous study. We succeeded in near full-length sequencing using MinION with plasma samples from 12 people living with HIV. Three of the samples were CRF109_0107, which was recently reported in China. Three others were the newly identified CRF127_07109, while six of them were considered to be CRF127_07109-related unique recombinant forms (URFs). The time to the most recent common ancestor of CRF127_07109 was estimated to be between 2015 and 2019. Our findings showed that CRF127_07109 and related URFs were generated recently in northern Vietnam, rather than migrated independently to northern Vietnam.

Prophylactic effect of antiretroviral therapy on hepatitis B virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is common in individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus, especially in men who have sex with men (MSM). Almost all currently used regimens of antiretroviral therapy (ART) contain lamivudine (LAM) or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), both of which have significant anti-HBV activity. However, the prophylactic effect of ART on HBV infection has not been assessed previously. METHODS: Non-HBV-vaccinated HIV-infected MSM were serologically evaluated for HBV infection using stocked serum samples. Cases negative for HBV surface antigen (HBsAg), antibody to HBsAg (anti-HBs), and antibody to HBV core antigen (anti-HBc) in first serum samples were serologically followed until last available stocked samples. HBV genotype and LAM-resistant mutation (rtM204V/I) were analyzed in cases that became HBsAg-positive. RESULTS: The first stocked samples were negative for all analyzed HBV serological markers in 354 of 1434 evaluated patients. The analysis of their last samples indicated HBV incident infection in 43 of them during the follow-up period. The rate of incident infections was lower during LAM- or TDF-containing ART (0.669 incident infections in 100 person-years) than during no ART period (6.726 incident infections in 100 person-years) and other ART (5.263 incident infections in 100 person-years) (P < .001). Genotype A was most prevalent (76.5%), and LAM-resistant HBV was more frequent in incident infections during LAM-containing ART (50.0%) than in those during no ART and other ART (7.1%) (P = .029). CONCLUSIONS: LAM- and TDF-containing ART regimens seem to provide prophylaxis against HBV infection, although drug-resistant strains seem to evade these effects.

Naturally selected rilpivirine-resistant HIV-1 variants by host cellular immunity.

BACKGROUND: Rilpivirine is listed as an alternative key drug in current antiretroviral therapy (ART) guidelines. E138G/A/K in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) are rilpivirine resistance-associated mutations and can be identified in a few ART-naive patients, although at low frequency. The 138th position in HIV-1 RT is located in one of the putative epitopes of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B*18-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). CTL-mediated immune pressure selects escape mutations within the CTL epitope. Here we tested whether E138G/A/K could be selected by HLA-B*18-restricted CTLs. METHODS: The amino acid variation at the 138th position was compared between ART-naive HIV-1-infected patients with and without HLA-B*18. The optimal epitope containing the 138th position was determined and the impact of E138G/A/K on CTL response was analyzed by epitope-specific CTLs. The effect of E138G/A/K on drug susceptibility was determined by constructing recombinant HIV-1 variants. RESULTS: The prevalence of E138G/A/K was 21% and 0.37% in 19 and 1088 patients with and without HLA-B*18, respectively (odds ratio, 72.3; P = 4.9 × 10(-25)). The CTL response was completely abolished by the substitution of E138G/A/K in the epitope peptide. E138G/A/K conferred 5.1-, 7.1-, and 2.7-fold resistance to rilpivirine, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: E138G/A/K can be selected by HLA-B*18-restricted CTLs and confer significant rilpivirine resistance. We recommend drug resistance testing before the introduction of rilpivirine-based ART in HLA-B*18-positive patients.

Neutralization activity of IgG antibody in COVID­19­convalescent plasma against SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We evaluated the anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels, anti-spike (S)-immunoglobulin G (IgG) and anti-nucleocapsid (N)-IgG, and the neutralization activity of IgG antibody in COVID­19­convalescent plasma against variants of SARS-CoV-2, alpha, beta, gamma, delta, kappa, omicron and R.1 strains. The study included 30 patients with clinically diagnosed COVID-19. The anti-S-IgG and anti-N-IgG levels ranged from 30.0 to 555.1 and from 10.1 to 752.6, respectively. The neutralization activity (50% inhibition concentration: IC50) for the wild-type Wuhan strain ranged from < 6.3 to 81.5 µg/ml. IgG antibodies were > 100 µg/ml in 18 of 30 (60%) subjects infected with the beta variant. The IC50 values for wild-type and beta variants correlated inversely with anti-S-IgG levels (p < 0.05), but no such correlation was noted with anti-N-IgG. IgG antibodies prevented infectivity and cytopathic effects of six different variants of concern in the cell-based assays of wild-type, alpha, gamma, delta, kappa and R.1 strains, but not that of the beta and omicron strains. IgG is considered the main neutralizing activity in the blood, although other factors may be important in other body tissues.

Association of demographics, HCV co-infection, HIV-1 subtypes and genetic clustering with late HIV diagnosis: a retrospective analysis from the Japanese Drug Resistance HIV-1 Surveillance Network.

INTRODUCTION: Late diagnosis of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major concern epidemiologically, socially and for national healthcare systems. Although the association of certain demographics with late HIV diagnosis has been reported in several studies, the association of other factors, including clinical and phylogenetic factors, remains unclear. In the present study, we conducted a nationwide analysis to explore the association of demographics, clinical factors, HIV-1 subtypes/circulating recombinant form (CRFs) and genetic clustering with late HIV diagnosis in Japan, where new infections mainly occur among young men who have sex with men (MSM) in urban areas. METHODS: Anonymized data on demographics, clinical factors and HIV genetic sequences from 39.8% of people newly diagnosed with HIV in Japan were collected by the Japanese Drug Resistance HIV-1 Surveillance Network from 2003 to 2019. Factors associated with late HIV diagnosis (defined as HIV diagnosis with a CD4 count <350 cells/µl) were identified using logistic regression. Clusters were identified by HIV-TRACE with a genetic distance threshold of 1.5%. RESULTS: Of the 9422 people newly diagnosed with HIV enrolled in the surveillance network between 2003 and 2019, 7752 individuals with available CD4 count at diagnosis were included. Late HIV diagnosis was observed in 5522 (71.2%) participants. The overall median CD4 count at diagnosis was 221 (IQR: 62-373) cells/µl. Variables independently associated with late HIV diagnosis included age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.21, 95% CI 1.88-2.59, ≥45 vs. ≤29 years), heterosexual transmission (aOR 1.34, 95% CI 1.11-1.62, vs. MSM), living outside of Tokyo (aOR 1.18, 95% CI 1.05-1.32), hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection (aOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.01-1.98) and not belonging to a cluster (aOR 1.30, 95% CI 1.12-1.51). CRF07_BC (aOR 0.34, 95% CI 0.18-0.65, vs. subtype B) was negatively associated with late HIV diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to demographic factors, HCV co-infection, HIV-1 subtypes/CRFs and not belonging to a cluster were independently associated with late HIV diagnosis in Japan. These results imply the need for public health programmes aimed at the general population, including but not limited to key populations, to encourage HIV testing.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in ABCC2 associate with tenofovir-induced kidney tubular dysfunction in Japanese patients with HIV-1 infection: a pharmacogenetic study.

BACKGROUND: Tenofovir is a widely used antiretroviral drug although it can cause kidney tubular dysfunction (KTD). The aim of this study was to determine the association between polymorphisms in genes encoding drug transporters and KTD in Japanese patients treated with tenofovir. METHODS: The association between tenofovir-induced KTD and 14 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the ABCC2, ABCC4, ABCC10, SCL22A6, and ABCB1 genes was investigated in 190 Japanese patients. KTD was diagnosed by the presence of at least 3 abnormalities in the following parameters: fractional tubular resorption of phosphate, fractional excretion of uric acid, urinary ß2-microglobulin, urinary α1-microglobulin, and urinary N-acetyl-ß-D-glucosaminidase. Genotyping was performed by allelic discrimination using TaqMan 5'-nuclease assays with standard protocols. Associations between genotypes and KTD were tested by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: KTD was diagnosed in 19 of the 190 (10%) patients. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed a significant association between KTD and genotype CC at position -24 CC (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 20.08; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.711-235.7; P= .017) and genotype AA at position 1249 (adjusted OR, 16.21; 95% CI, 1.630-161.1; P= .017) of ABCC2. Multivariate analysis showed higher adjusted OR for patients with both homozygotes (adjusted OR, 38.44; 95% CI, 2.051-720.4; P= .015). ABCC2 haplotype -24T and 1249G was a protective haplotype for KTD (OR, 0.098; 95% CI, .002-.603; P= .003 CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study of our knowledge to identify the association between SNPs in ABCC2 and tenofovir-induced KTD in an Asian population. Close monitoring of renal function is warranted in tenofovir-treated patients with these SNPs.

Possible association of HLA-DP polymorphism and antiretroviral therapy with hepatitis B virus clearance in an HIV-infected Vietnamese population.

There is little evidence regarding the association between hepatitis B virus (HBV) chronicity and HLA-DP among the HIV-infected Vietnamese population. To study this, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis and a prospective study involving an HIV-infected Vietnamese cohort. The association between HBV chronicity and HLA-DP single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of rs3077 and rs9277535 among Vietnamese patients with previous HBV exposure was first evaluated. In addition, treatment-naive patients with chronic HBV infection were followed between 2012 and 2017 for HBV clearance after the initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). A total of 820 subjects with previous HBV exposure were included in the cross-sectional study. Among them, 147 (17.9 %) had chronic HBV infection, and 673 (82.1 %) achieved HBV clearance. The proportions of minor allele homozygotes of rs3077 and rs9277535 were 10.9 % and 15.2 % (p = 0.481) and 4.1 % and 11.7 % (p = 0.003), respectively. Multivariate analysis showed that rs9277535 minor homozygote was a significant protective factor against chronic HBV infection (odds ratio [OR], 0.271; 95 % confidence interval [CI]; 0.114-0.642, p = 0.001). Further, none of the 43 patients in the prospective study, who received ART possessed the rs9277535 minor homozygote. The average follow-up period was 4.8 years, and 10 subjects (23.3 %, 4.9 %/person-years) achieved HBV clearance. Univariate analysis revealed that the SNPs were not significantly associated with HBV clearance. In conclusion, our study confirmed that the rs9277535 minor allele homozygote was significantly associated with HBV clearance among HIV-infected Vietnamese patients.

Validation of mailed via postal service dried blood spot cards on commercially available HIV testing systems.

The demand for HIV testing using dried blood spots (DBS) has increased recently. However, DBS is not an approved sample for HIV testing in Japan. This study examined the validation of HIV testing with DBS, prepared at the laboratory or remotely and mailed via postal service to the laboratory. DBS were punched out from a 5.5 mm diameter circle on filter paper, then eluted with 600 µL of phosphate buffered saline overnight at 4℃, and analyzed by Lumipulse S HIVAg/Ab (LUM). The mean LUM count of DBS was 237.4-times diluted compared to titrated plasma. Repeated sample testing showed that although LUM count of DBS decreased slightly with increase in sample storage time (up to one month), it did not affect the result of HIV testing with DBS. Based on testing of 50 HIV+ confirmed cases and 50 HIV- persons, the estimated sensitivity was 98% (49/50) with a specificity of 100% when the cut-off value is 0.5. The single false negative case was a patient with undetectable viral load over the last 10 years, resulting in a decrease of antibody titer below the cut-off level. In conclusion, although DBS cannot completely replace plasma in HIV testing because the sensitivity was a little lower than that of plasma, it can be potentially useful for a screening test by self-finger-prick and postal service use. This will allow people to receive HIV testing without visiting public health centers.

Combination of V106I and V179D polymorphic mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase confers resistance to efavirenz and nevirapine but not etravirine.

Etravirine (ETV) is a second-generation nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor (NNRTI) introduced recently for salvage antiretroviral treatment after the emergence of NNRTI-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Following its introduction, two naturally occurring mutations in HIV-1 RT, V106I and V179D, were listed as ETV resistance-associated mutations. However, the effect of these mutations on the development of NNRTI resistance has not been analyzed yet. To select highly NNRTI-resistant HIV-1 in vitro, monoclonal HIV-1 strains harboring V106I and V179D (HIV-1(V106I) and HIV-1(V179D)) were propagated in the presence of increasing concentrations of efavirenz (EFV). Interestingly, V179D emerged in one of three selection experiments from HIV-1(V106I) and V106I emerged in two of three experiments from HIV-1(V179D). Analysis of recombinant HIV-1 clones showed that the combination of V106I and V179D conferred significant resistance to EFV and nevirapine (NVP) but not to ETV. Structural analysis indicated that ETV can overcome the repulsive interactions caused by the combination of V106I and V179D through fine-tuning of its binding module to RT facilitated by its plastic structure, whereas EFV and NVP cannot because of their rigid structures. Analysis of clinical isolates showed comparable drug susceptibilities, and the same combination of mutations was found in some database patients who experienced virologic NNRTI-based treatment failure. The combination of V106I and V179D is a newly identified NNRTI resistance pattern of mutations. The combination of polymorphic and minor resistance-associated mutations should be interpreted carefully.

Allele and genotype frequencies of cytochrome P450 2B6 gene in a Mongolian population.

CYP2B6 plays an important role in metabolizing various drugs in common clinical use. Increasing interest in CYP2B6 genetic polymorphism was stimulated by revelations of a specific CYP2B6 genotype significantly affecting the metabolism of efavirenz, an anti-HIV type-1 agent. The present study determined the CYP2B6 haplotype in 100 healthy unrelated Mongolian volunteers by analyzing the genotypes of nine single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) positions (-82T>C, 64C>T, 499C>T, 516G>T, 777C>A, 785A>G, 983T>C, 1375A>G, and 1459C>T) in the CYP2B6 gene. The CYP2B6 *1 allele was the most frequent in the Mongolian population tested at 64.5%, higher than the equivalent frequency in African-Americans and Ghanaians. The second most frequent allele was CYP2B6 *6 (21.0%), although this allele was less frequent than that in Ghanaians. Only one CYP2B6 *5 allele was identified in our Mongolian subjects (0.5%), although it is the third most frequent allele in white and African-American populations. These CYP2B6 genotypes revealed seven slow efavirenz metabolizers in 100 Mongolians, which is significantly fewer than the same group among Ghanaians. Overall, the Mongolian CYP2B6 allele distribution was comparable with that in Japanese, Koreans, and Han Chinese. This is the first report of CYP2B6 genotype frequency in a Mongolian population, and it could provide clinically useful information on drug metabolism in this population group.

Full-Genome Analysis of Hepatitis C Virus in Japanese and Non-Japanese Patients Coinfected With HIV-1 in Tokyo.

BACKGROUND: Acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is increasing among HIV-1-infected individuals in Tokyo. Appropriate clinical management is needed. SETTING: To delineate the epidemiological status of HCV transmission, we analyzed stocked plasma samples of HCV/HIV-1-coinfected patients seen at the largest referral center for HIV care in Tokyo. METHODS: HCV full-genome sequences were amplified and determined using next-generation sequencing. HCV genotyping and phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses of thus obtained sequences were performed and combined with the analysis of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase sequences. RESULTS: HCV phylogenetic analysis identified 3 dense clusters containing cases of men who have sex with men (MSM) and injection drug users (IDUs). Most of the confirmed acute infection cases were included within these clusters, indicating that the clustered viruses are currently being actively transmitted among HIV-1-infected MSM and IDU. Phylodynamic analysis indicated population expansion of one of these clusters from 2006 to 2008, during which the largest number of HIV-1-infected MSM was diagnosed in Tokyo. HIV-1 reverse transcriptase sequences of HCV-coinfected patients included in the same clusters did not converge together and did not form clusters, but rather diverged in the area of subtype B in the phylogenetic tree, indicating that they acquired HCV infection from individuals different from those from whom they had acquired HIV-1 infection. It is considered that these MSM changed their sexual partners and that IDU changed their drug use groups. CONCLUSIONS: The results warrant careful monitoring of high-risk groups including MSM and IDU and early introduction of HCV treatment to prevent HCV epidemic.

Effects of low HIV type 1 load and antiretroviral treatment on IgG-capture BED-enzyme immunoassay.

The IgG-capture BED-enzyme immunoassay (BED-CEIA) is used widely at present to detect recent HIV-1 seroconversion. However, antibody levels and antibody kinetics are impacted by HIV-1 load and antiretroviral treatment, which may have a significant effect on the assay results. In this study, we analyzed serial samples from 11 patients with recent infection, including four patients treated by structured treatment interruption (STI), and compared the results with those of 10 untreated and 7 treated patients with chronic infection. The BED-CEIA missidentified one long-term nonprogressor hemophiliac with an extremely low HIV-1 load and five patients with chronic infection who received antiretroviral treatment. We also found that the ODn values increased slowly in patients with recent infection and low HIV-1 loads and that the ODn values fluctuated in parallel with HIV-1 load during STI. Our data indicate that the results of BED-CEIA are influenced by HIV-1 load and antiretroviral treatment. Care should be taken when interpreting the results of BED-CEIA, especially in individuals with low HIV-1 loads. Those on antiretroviral treatment should be excluded from BED-CEIA testing to improve the predictive value of detecting recent infections.

Successful efavirenz dose reduction in HIV type 1-infected individuals with cytochrome P450 2B6 *6 and *26.

BACKGROUND: Efavirenz (EFV) is metabolized primarily by cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6), and high plasma concentrations of the drug are associated with a G-->T polymorphism at position 516 (516G-->T) of CYP2B6 and frequent central nervous system (CNS)-related side effects. Here, we tested the feasibility of genotype-based dose reduction of EFV. METHODS: CYP2B6 genotypes were determined in 456 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected patients who were receiving EFV treatment or were scheduled to receive EFV-containing treatment. EFV dose was reduced in CYP2B6 516G-->T carriers who had high plasma EFV concentrations while receiving the standard dosage (600 mg). EFV-naive homozygous CYP2B6 516G-->T carriers were treated with low-dose EFV. In both groups, the dose was further reduced when plasma EFV concentration remained high. RESULTS: CYP2B6 516G-->T was identified in the *6 allele (found in 17.9% of our subjects) and a novel allele, *26 (found in 1.3% of our patients). All EFV-treated CYP2B6 *6/*6 and *6/*26 carriers had extremely high plasma EFV concentrations (>6000 ng/mL) while receiving the standard dosage. EFV dose was reduced to 400 mg for 11 patients and to 200 mg for 7 patients with persistently suppressed HIV-1 loads. EFV-containing treatment was initiated at 400 mg in 4 CYP2B6 *6/*6 carriers and one *6/*26 carrier. Two of them still had a high plasma EFV concentration while receiving that dose, and the dose was further reduced to 200 mg, with successful HIV-1 suppression. CNS-related symptoms improved with dose reduction in 10 of the 14 patients, although some had not been aware of the symptoms at initial dosage. CONCLUSIONS: Genotype-based EFV dose reduction is feasible in CYP2B6 *6/*6 and *6/*26 carriers, which can reduce EFV-associated CNS symptoms.