Structural determinants of human APOBEC3A enzymatic and nucleic acid binding properties.

Human APOBEC3A (A3A) is a single-domain cytidine deaminase that converts deoxycytidine residues to deoxyuridine in single-stranded DNA (ssDNA). It inhibits a wide range of viruses and endogenous retroelements such as LINE-1, but it can also edit genomic DNA, which may play a role in carcinogenesis. Here, we extend our recent findings on the NMR structure of A3A and report structural, biochemical and cell-based mutagenesis studies to further characterize A3A's deaminase and nucleic acid binding activities. We find that A3A binds ssRNA, but the RNA and DNA binding interfaces differ and no deamination of ssRNA is detected. Surprisingly, with only one exception (G105A), alanine substitution mutants with changes in residues affected by specific ssDNA binding retain deaminase activity. Furthermore, A3A binds and deaminates ssDNA in a length-dependent manner. Using catalytically active and inactive A3A mutants, we show that the determinants of A3A deaminase activity and anti-LINE-1 activity are not the same. Finally, we demonstrate A3A's potential to mutate genomic DNA during transient strand separation and show that this process could be counteracted by ssDNA binding proteins. Taken together, our studies provide new insights into the molecular properties of A3A and its role in multiple cellular and antiviral functions.

Role of O-glycosylation and expression of CD43 and CD45 on the surfaces of effector T cells in human T cell leukemia virus type 1 cell-to-cell infection.

We used replication-dependent retroviral vectors to identify cell surface antigens involved in the cell-to-cell transmission of human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). We generated monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against Jurkat T cells and selected several IgM MAbs that strongly inhibited HTLV-1 but not human immune deficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) cell-to-cell infection. These MAbs recognized the so-called Tn antigen (GalNAcα1-O-Ser/Thr) that arises on Jurkat cells from a mutation in the T-synthase-specific chaperone Cosmc and the consequent loss of O-glycan elongation. Anti-Tn MAbs precipitated two major O-glycan carrier proteins, CD43 and CD45, and caused a strong aggregation of Jurkat cells. The restoration of O-glycosylation in Jurkat cells by stably transducing the wild-type Cosmc gene resulted in a 3- to 4-fold increase in the level of surface expression of CD43 and enhanced HTLV-1 transmission 10-fold in comparison to that of parental cells. The short hairpin RNA (shRNA) knockdown of CD43 or CD45 expression in Jurkat-Cosmc, HBP-ALL, and CEM T cells decreased HTLV-1 infection severalfold. The knockdown of CD45 in Jurkat cells severely reduced both HTLV-1 and HIV-1 infections, but Cosmc coexpression partially rescued infection. HTLV-1 proteins, which assembled in small patches on Jurkat cells, formed large clusters on the surface of Jurkat-Cosmc cells. These data indicate that large aggregates of HTLV-1 assemblies are more infectious than multiple clustered virions. We suggest that heavily O-glycosylated CD43 and CD45 molecules render cells less adhesive, prevent inappropriate cell-cell contacts, and favor the assembly of HTLV-1 particles into large, highly infectious structures on the surface of T cells.

The role of ITCH protein in human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 release.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has two late domain (LD) motifs, PPPY and PTAP, which are important for viral budding. Mutations in the PPPY motif are more deleterious for viral release than changes in the PTAP motif. Several reports have shown that the interaction of PPPY with the WW domains of a Nedd4 (neuronal precursor cell-expressed developmentally down-regulated-4) family ubiquitin ligase (UL) is a critical event in virus release. We tested nine members of the Nedd4 family ULs and found that ITCH is the main contributor to HTLV-1 budding. ITCH overexpression strongly inhibited release and infectivity of wild-type (wt) HTLV-1, but rescued the release of infectious virions with certain mutations in the PPPY motif. Electron microscopy showed either fewer or misshapen virus particles when wt HTLV-1 was produced in the presence of overexpressed ITCH, whereas mutants with changes in the PPPY motif yielded normal looking particles at wt level. The other ULs had significantly weaker or no effects on HTLV-1 release and infectivity except for SMURF-1, which caused enhanced release of wt and all PPPY(-) mutant particles. These particles were poorly infectious and showed abnormal morphology by electron microscopy. Budding and infectivity defects due to overexpression of ITCH and SMURF-1 were correlated with higher than normal ubiquitination of Gag. Only silencing of ITCH, but not of WWP1, WWP2, and Nedd4, resulted in a reduction of HTLV-1 budding from 293T cells. The binding efficiencies between the HTLV-1 LD and WW domains of different ULs as measured by mammalian two-hybrid interaction did not correlate with the strength of their effect on HTLV-1 budding.

Association of SRC-related kinase Lyn with the interleukin-2 receptor and its role in maintaining constitutive phosphorylation of JAK/STAT in human T-cell leukemia virus type 1-transformed T cells.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection and transformation are associated with an incremental switch in the expression of the Src-related protein tyrosine kinases Lck and Lyn. We examined the physical and functional interactions of Lyn with receptors and signal transduction proteins in HTLV-1-infected T cells. Lyn coimmunoprecipitates with the interleukin-2 beta receptor (IL-2Rß) and JAK3 proteins; however, the association of Lyn with the IL-2Rß and Lyn kinase activity was independent of IL-2 stimulation. Phosphorylation of Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) and signal transducers and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) proteins was reduced by treatment of cells with the Src kinase inhibitor PP2 or by ectopic expression of a dominant negative Lyn kinase protein.

The role of amino-terminal sequences in cellular localization and antiviral activity of APOBEC3B.

Human APOBEC3B (A3B) has been described as a potent inhibitor of retroviral infection and retrotransposition. However, we found that the predominantly nuclear A3B only weakly restricted infection by HIV-1, HIV-1Δvif, and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), while significantly inhibiting LINE-1 retrotransposition. The chimeric construct A3G/B, in which the first 60 amino acids of A3B were replaced with those of A3G, restricted HIV-1, HIV-1Δvif, and HTLV-1 infection, as well as LINE-1 retrotransposition. In contrast to the exclusively cytoplasmic A3G, which is inactive against LINE-1 retrotransposition, the A3G/B protein, while localized mainly to the cytoplasm, was also present in the nucleus. Further mutational analysis revealed that residues 18, 19, 22, and 24 in A3B were the major determinants for nuclear versus cytoplasmic localization and antiretroviral activity. HIV-1Δvif packages A3G, A3B, and A3G/B into particles with close-to-equal efficiencies. Mutation E68Q or E255Q in the active centers of A3G/B resulted in loss of the inhibitory activity against HIV-1Δvif, while not affecting activity against LINE-1 retrotransposition. The low inhibition of HIV-1Δvif by A3B correlated with a low rate of G-to-A hypermutation. In contrast, viruses that had been exposed to A3G/B showed a high number of G-to-A transitions. The mutation pattern was similar to that previously reported for A3B, with a preference for the GA context. In summary, these observations suggest that changing 4 residues in the amino terminus of A3B not only retargets the protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm but also enhances its ability to restrict HIV while retaining inhibition of retrotransposition.

Quantitative comparison of HTLV-1 and HIV-1 cell-to-cell infection with new replication dependent vectors.

We have developed an efficient method to quantify cell-to-cell infection with single-cycle, replication dependent reporter vectors. This system was used to examine the mechanisms of infection with HTLV-1 and HIV-1 vectors in lymphocyte cell lines. Effector cells transfected with reporter vector, packaging vector, and Env expression plasmid produced virus-like particles that transduced reporter gene activity into cocultured target cells with zero background. Reporter gene expression was detected exclusively in target cells and required an Env-expression plasmid and a viral packaging vector, which provided essential structural and enzymatic proteins for virus replication. Cell-cell fusion did not contribute to infection, as reporter protein was rarely detected in syncytia. Coculture of transfected Jurkat T cells and target Raji/CD4 B cells enhanced HIV-1 infection two fold and HTLV-1 infection ten thousand fold in comparison with cell-free infection of Raji/CD4 cells. Agents that interfere with actin and tubulin polymerization strongly inhibited HTLV-1 and modestly decreased HIV-1 cell-to-cell infection, an indication that cytoskeletal remodeling was more important for HTLV-1 transmission. Time course studies showed that HTLV-1 transmission occurred very rapidly after cell mixing, whereas slower kinetics of HIV-1 coculture infection implies a different mechanism of infectious transmission. HTLV-1 Tax was demonstrated to play an important role in altering cell-cell interactions that enhance virus infection and replication. Interestingly, superantigen-induced synapses between Jurkat cells and Raji/CD4 cells did not enhance infection for either HTLV-1 or HIV-1. In general, the dependence on cell-to-cell infection was determined by the virus, the effector and target cell types, and by the nature of the cell-cell interaction.

Assembly of the murine leukemia virus is directed towards sites of cell-cell contact.

We have investigated the underlying mechanism by which direct cell-cell contact enhances the efficiency of cell-to-cell transmission of retroviruses. Applying 4D imaging to a model retrovirus, the murine leukemia virus, we directly monitor and quantify sequential assembly, release, and transmission events for individual viral particles as they happen in living cells. We demonstrate that de novo assembly is highly polarized towards zones of cell-cell contact. Viruses assembled approximately 10-fold more frequently at zones of cell contact with no change in assembly kinetics. Gag proteins were drawn to adhesive zones formed by viral Env glycoprotein and its cognate receptor to promote virus assembly at cell-cell contact. This process was dependent on the cytoplasmic tail of viral Env. Env lacking the cytoplasmic tail while still allowing for contact formation, failed to direct virus assembly towards contact sites. Our data describe a novel role for the viral Env glycoprotein in establishing cell-cell adhesion and polarization of assembly prior to becoming a fusion protein to allow virus entry into cells.

Opposing effects of a tyrosine-based sorting motif and a PDZ-binding motif regulate human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 envelope trafficking.

Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) envelope (Env) glycoprotein mediates binding of the virus to its receptor on the surface of target cells and subsequent fusion of virus and cell membranes. To better understand the mechanisms that control HTLV-1 Env trafficking and activity, we have examined two protein-protein interaction motifs in the cytoplasmic domain of Env. One is the sequence YSLI, which matches the consensus YXXPhi motifs that are known to interact with various adaptor protein complexes; the other is the sequence ESSL at the C terminus of Env, which matches the consensus PDZ-binding motif. We show here that mutations that destroy the YXXPhi motif increased Env expression on the cell surface and increased cell-cell fusion activity. In contrast, mutation of the PDZ-binding motif greatly diminished Env expression in cells, which could be restored to wild-type levels either by mutating the YXXPhi motif or by silencing AP2 and AP3, suggesting that interactions with PDZ proteins oppose an Env degradation pathway mediated by AP2 and AP3. Silencing of the PDZ protein hDlg1 did not affect Env expression, suggesting that hDlg1 is not a binding partner for Env. Substitution of the YSLI sequence in HTLV-1 Env with YXXPhi elements from other cell or virus membrane-spanning proteins resulted in alterations in Env accumulation in cells, incorporation into virions, and virion infectivity. Env variants containing YXXPhi motifs that are predicted to have high-affinity interaction with AP2 accumulated to lower steady-state levels. Interestingly, mutations that destroy the YXXPhi motif resulted in viruses that were not infectious by cell-free or cell-associated routes of infection. Unlike YXXPhi, the function of the PDZ-binding motif manifests itself only in the producer cells; AP2 silencing restored the incorporation of PDZ-deficient Env into virus-like particles (VLPs) and the infectivity of these VLPs to wild-type levels.

Infectious transmission and replication of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1.

Retrovirus infection proceeds by attachment of the envelope glycoprotein to a cell surface receptor, followed by fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. Once in the cell, the viral enzymes and structural proteins form a replication complex that converts the single-stranded viral genomic RNA into a double-stranded DNA, which is then integrated into the host cell chromosome. For HTLV-1, these events are not well characterized. We have developed cell culture systems, infectious molecular clones, and viral vectors that can be used to characterize the mechanisms of HTLV-1 infection and replication. Infection with cell-free HTLV-1 virions is orders of magnitude less efficient compared with other retroviruses. This inefficiency is the result of a block in the replication process after the virion is bound to the cell surface. We are determining whether this block is conferred by the viral replication enzymes, results from the actions of cellular restriction factors, reflects the need for cell-cell contact, or is caused by a combination of these factors.

Cell-cell transmission allows human T-lymphotropic virus 1 to circumvent tetherin restriction.

Tetherin is part of the cellular innate immunity and impedes cell-free transmission of viruses that bud from the plasma membrane by retaining them on the cell surface. Some viruses have evolved activities in different proteins such as Vpu (HIV-1), K-protein (KSHV), Nef (SIV) or Env (HIV-2) to downregulate tetherin and overcome its restriction. We found that chronically HTLV-1 infected T-cell lines express eightfold more tetherin than uninfected transformed T-cell lines suggesting that tetherin expression is not inhibited by the virus. We observed that even small amounts of exogenous tetherin caused the retention of HTLV-1 on the cell surface and severely reduced cell-free infectivity of HTLV-1, but that cell-cell transmission, which is more relevant for HTLV-1, was significantly less decreased. However, knock-down of tetherin expresssion resulted in a slight increase in cell-cell infection indicating that the protein does not enhance this route of transmission.

Cell-to-cell transmission can overcome multiple donor and target cell barriers imposed on cell-free HIV.

Virus transmission can occur either by a cell-free mode through the extracellular space or by cell-to-cell transmission involving direct cell-to-cell contact. The factors that determine whether a virus spreads by either pathway are poorly understood. Here, we assessed the relative contribution of cell-free and cell-to-cell transmission to the spreading of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We demonstrate that HIV can spread by a cell-free pathway if all the steps of the viral replication cycle are efficiently supported in highly permissive cells. However, when the cell-free path was systematically hindered at various steps, HIV transmission became contact-dependent. Cell-to-cell transmission overcame barriers introduced in the donor cell at the level of gene expression and surface retention by the restriction factor tetherin. Moreover, neutralizing antibodies that efficiently inhibit cell-free HIV were less effective against cell-to-cell transmitted virus. HIV cell-to-cell transmission also efficiently infected target T cells that were relatively poorly susceptible to cell-free HIV. Importantly, we demonstrate that the donor and target cell types influence critically the extent by which cell-to-cell transmission can overcome each barrier. Mechanistically, cell-to-cell transmission promoted HIV spread to more cells and infected target cells with a higher proviral content than observed for cell-free virus. Our data demonstrate that the frequently observed contact-dependent spread of HIV is the result of specific features in donor and target cell types, thus offering an explanation for conflicting reports on the extent of cell-to-cell transmission of HIV.

Interaction between the HTLV-1 envelope and cellular proteins: impact on virus infection and restriction.

The first human retrovirus, human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1), was discovered 30 years ago. Despite intensive study, the cell surface molecules involved in virus entry have only been identified over the past few years. Three molecules form the receptor complex for HTLV-1: glucose transporter 1, neuropilin 1 and heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Another molecule on the surface of dendritic cells, DC-SIGN, may play a role in dendritic cell-mediated infection of cells. In addition to the cell surface molecules used for entry, the HTLV-1 envelope interacts with cellular proteins, enabling the virus to traffic by exploiting cellular delivery pathways. To facilitate both these steps, HTLV-1 encodes motifs that mimic cellular binding partners for the trafficking system and ligands for the receptors. Here we review the interactions between the HTLV-1 envelope and cellular proteins.

The inner loop of tetraspanins CD82 and CD81 mediates interactions with human T cell lymphotrophic virus type 1 Gag protein.

The tetraspanin superfamily proteins play important roles in organizing membrane protein complexes, modulating integrin function, and controlling T cell adhesion. Tetraspanins such as CD82 contain two extracellular loops with its N terminus, C terminus, and inner loop exposed to the cytoplasm. The matrix (MA) domain of human T cell lymphotrophic virus, type 1 (HTLV-1), Gag interacts with the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane and is concentrated at tetraspanin-enriched microdomains. To understand the basis of this association, we generated site-directed mutations in the various domains of CD82 and used coimmunoprecipitation and colocalization approaches to examine interactions with HTLV-1 MA. The large extracellular loop of CD82, which is important for interactions with integrins, was not required for the association with HTLV-1 MA. The cytoplasmic N terminus and C terminus of CD82 were also dispensable for CD82-MA interactions. In contrast, mutations of conserved amino acids in the inner loop of CD82 or of palmitoylated cysteines that flank the inner loop diminished CD82 association with MA. HTLV-1 MA also interacted with the inner loop of CD81. Thus, association of HTLV-1 Gag with tetraspanin-enriched microdomains is mediated by the inner loops of CD81 and CD82.

The role of WWP1-Gag interaction and Gag ubiquitination in assembly and release of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1.

The PPPY motif in the matrix (MA) domain of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) Gag associates with WWP1, a member of the HECT domain containing family of E3 ubiquitin ligases. Mutation of the PPPY motif arrests particle assembly at an early stage and abolishes ubiquitination of MA. Similar effects are seen when Gag is expressed in the presence of a truncated form of WWP1 that lacks the catalytically active HECT domain (C2WW). To understand the role of ubiquitination in budding, we mutated the four lysines in MA to arginines and identified lysine 74 as the unique site of ubiquitination. Virus-like particles produced by the K74R mutant did not contain ubiquitinated MA and showed a fourfold reduction in the release of infectious particles. Furthermore, the K74R mutation rendered assembly hypersensitive to C2WW inhibition; K74R Gag budding was inhibited at significantly lower levels of expression of C2WW compared with wild-type Gag. This finding indicates that the interaction between Gag and WWP1 is required for functions other than Gag ubiquitination. Additionally, we show that the PPPY(-) mutant Gag exerts a strong dominant-negative effect on the budding of wild-type Gag, further supporting the importance of recruitment of WWP1 to achieve particle assembly.

Resistance of human T cell leukemia virus type 1 to APOBEC3G restriction is mediated by elements in nucleocapsid.

Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has evolved a remarkable strategy to thwart the antiviral effects of the cellular cytidine deaminase APOBEC3G (hA3G). HTLV-1 infects T lymphocytes in vivo, where, like HIV-1, it is likely to encounter hA3G. HIV-1 counteracts the innate antiviral activity of hA3G by producing an accessory protein, Vif, which hastens the degradation of hA3G. In contrast, HTLV-1 does not encode a Vif homologue; instead, HTLV-1 has evolved a cis-acting mechanism to prevent hA3G restriction. We demonstrate here that a peptide motif in the C terminus of the HTLV-1 nucleocapsid (NC) domain inhibits hA3G packaging into nascent virions. Mutation of amino acids within this region resulted in increased levels of hA3G incorporation into virions and increased susceptibility to hA3G restriction. Elements within the C-terminal extension of the NC domain are highly conserved among the primate T cell leukemia viruses, but this extension is absent in all other retroviral NC proteins.

HTLV-1 Gag protein associates with CD82 tetraspanin microdomains at the plasma membrane.

We examined the association of HTLV-1 Gag with tetraspanin-enriched microdomains in the plasma membrane. Immunofluorescent staining and confocal image analysis showed that HTLV-1 Gag protein colocalized with CD82 and other tetraspanins at the plasma membrane of T cells. HTLV-1 Gag, which is associated with the inner surface of the plasma membrane, was concentrated to the patches formed by antibody-mediated cross-linking of CD82 on the cell surface. Also, CD82 and HTLV-1 Gag rapidly segregated to the immune synapse that is formed between Raji B cells and Jurkat T cells in the presence of bacterial superantigen. CD82, which was immunoprecipitated from cell extracts prepared in Brij97 detergent conditions, was associated with the matrix (MA) protein. Stable interaction of MA and CD82 in Brij97-disrupted cell extracts required Gag multimerization and proteolytic processing. The form of MA that coimmunoprecipitated with CD82 was a cysteine-linked homodimer. The viral envelope glycoprotein was not required for the association of Gag with CD82-enriched membrane regions. In contrast to HTLV-1, HIV-1 Gag did not colocalize, cosegregate, or coimmunoprecipitate with CD82. Our data suggest that once at the plasma membrane, HTLV-1 virion components associate with CD82-containing microdomains, which may facilitate the mobilization of nascent virions to sites of intercellular adhesion.

A novel protease processing site in the transframe protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 PR76(gag-pro) defines the N terminus of RT.

The genomic RNA of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 encodes three polyproteins, Gag, Gag-Pro, and Gag-Pro-Pol, which are translated as a result of no, one, and two frameshifts, respectively. In this report we demonstrate that the 77 residues encoded at the C terminus of the Gag-Pro precursor can be collectively detected as an 8-kDa transframe protein (TFP) in virions. Mutant viruses with a C-terminally truncated TFP (19, 32, or 50 residues) had essentially a wild-type phenotype in vitro. However, a virus mutant that encoded only the Gag and Gag-Pro-Pol polyproteins due to a mutation in the second frameshift site, and hence did not produce TFP, was noninfectious. Mutation analysis of the proteolytic cleavage site between PR and TFP revealed the presence of an additional site and the existence of a p1 peptide separating protease and TFP. While removal of the cleavage site at the PR-p1 junction had a modest effect on virus replication, mutation of the p1-TFP cleavage site led to noninfectious virus and the loss of reverse transcriptase activity. Determination of the amino-terminal sequence of a hemagglutinin-tagged RT demonstrated that the same site is used in processing the Gag-Pro-Pol precursor and thus defines the start of mature RT. Neither mutation alone or in combination caused changes in the amounts or processing patterns of the Gag polyprotein, indicating that protease is active independent of its C terminus.

Late assembly motifs of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 and their relative roles in particle release.

Three late assembly domain consensus motifs, namely PTAP, PPPY, and LYPXL, have been identified in different retroviruses. They have been shown to interact with the cellular proteins TSG101, Nedd4, and AP2 or AIP, respectively. Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has a PPPY and a PTAP motif, separated by two amino acids, located at the end of MA, but only the PPPY motif is conserved in the deltaretrovirus group. Like other retroviral peptides carrying the late motif, MA is mono- or di-ubiquitinated. A mutational analysis showed that 90% of PPPY mutant particles were retained in the cell compared to 15% for the wild-type virus. Mutations of the PTAP motif resulted in a 20% decrease in particle release. In single-cycle infectivity assays, the infectious titers of late motif mutants correlated with the amounts of released virus, as determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We observed binding of MA to the WW domains of the Nedd4 family member WWP1 but not to the amino-terminal ubiquitin E2 variant domain of TSG101 in mammalian two-hybrid analyses. The binding to WWP1 was eliminated when the PPPY motif was mutated. However, MA showed binding to TSG101 in the yeast two-hybrid system that was dependent on an intact PTAP motif. A dominant-negative (DN) mutant of WWP1 could inhibit budding of the intact HTLV-1 virus. In contrast, DN TSG101 only affected the release of virus-like particles encoded by Gag expression plasmids. Electron and fluorescent microscopy showed that Gag accumulates in large patches in the membranes of cells expressing viruses with PPPY mutations. Very few tethered immature particles could be detected in these samples, suggesting that budding is impaired at an earlier step than in other retroviruses.

Activation of interleukin-13 expression in T cells from HTLV-1-infected individuals and in chronically infected cell lines.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection profoundly alters T-cell gene expression, and the dysregulated synthesis of cytokines could influence the course and pathologic consequences of infection. In the process of screening T-cell lines for T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cytokine mRNAs, we observed that interleukin-13 (IL-13) mRNA was highly expressed in HTLV-1-infected, IL-2-dependent T-cell lines. IL-9 and interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) mRNAs were also expressed at high levels in chronically infected cell lines. IL-5 mRNA was detected in 60% of the HTLV-1-infected cell lines, but mRNAs for IL-4, IL-10, IL-2, and IL-15 were either below detection limits or did not correlate with HTLV-1 infection. Transcriptional activation of the IL-13 promoter by the HTLV-1 Tax trans-regulatory protein was demonstrated in Jurkat T cells transiently transfected with an IL-13 promoter-reporter plasmid. The clinical relevance of these observations was demonstrated by immunofluorescent staining and flow cytometry of lymphocytes obtained from HTLV-1-infected patients. These studies revealed that IL-13 production was directly related to the level of Tax expression in the infected CD4+ T cells soon after in vitro culture. As IL-13 plays key roles in tumor immunosurveillance, asthma, and central nervous system inflammation, it may contribute to the pathophysiology of HTLV-1-associated diseases.