Early Extubation: Who Qualifies Postoperatively in Lung Transplantation?

INTRODUCTION: Early extubation has been adopted in many settings within cardiothoracic surgery, with several advantages for patients. We sought to determine the association of timing of extubation in lung transplant recipients' short- and long-term outcomes. METHODS: Adult, primary lung transplants were identified from the United Network for Organ Sharing database. Recipients were stratified based on the duration of postoperative ventilation: 1) None (NV); 2) <5 Days (<5D); and 3) 5+ Days (5+D). Comparative statistics were performed, and both unadjusted and adjusted survival were analyzed with Kaplan-Meier Methods and a Cox proportional hazard model. A multivariable model including recipient, donor, and transplant characteristics was created to examine factors associated with NV. RESULTS: 28,575 recipients were identified (NV = 960, <5D = 21,959, 5+D = 5656). The NV group had shorter median length of stay (P < 0.01) and lower incidence of postoperative dialysis (P < 0.01). The NV and <5D groups had similar survival, while 5+D recipients had decreased survival (P < 0.01). The multivariable model demonstrated increased donor BMI, center volume, ischemic time, single lung transplant, and transplantation between 2011 and 2015 were associated with NV (P < 0.01 for all). Use of donation after cardiac death donors and transplantation between 2016 and 2021 was associated with postoperative ventilator use. CONCLUSIONS: Patients extubated early after lung transplantation have a shorter median length of stay without an associated increase in mortality. While not all patients are appropriate for earlier extubation, it is possible to extubate patients early following lung transplant. Further efforts are necessary to help expand this practice and ensure its' success for recipients.

Long-Term Survival Following Primary Graft Dysfunction Development in Lung Transplantation.

INTRODUCTION: Primary graft dysfunction (PGD) is a known risk factor for early mortality following lung transplant (LT). However, the outcomes of patients who achieve long-term survival following index hospitalization are unknown. We aimed to determine the long-term association of PGD grade 3 (PGD3) in patients without in-hospital mortality. METHODS: LT recipients were identified from the United Network for Organ Sharing Database. Patients were stratified based on the grade of PGD at 72 h (No PGD, Grade 1/2 or Grade 3). Groups were assessed with comparative statistics. Long-term survival was evaluated using Kaplan-Meier methods and a multivariable shared frailty model including recipient, donor, and transplant characteristics. RESULTS: The PGD3 group had significantly increased length of stay, dialysis, and treated rejection post-transplant (P < 0.001). Unadjusted survival analysis revealed a significant difference in long-term survival (P < 0.001) between groups; however, following adjustment, PGD3 was not independently associated with long-term survival (hazard ratio: 0.972; 95% confidence interval: 0.862-1.096). Increased mortality was significantly associated with increased recipient age and treated rejection. Decreased mortality was significantly associated with no donor diabetes, bilateral LT as compared to single LT, transplant in 2015-2016 and 2017-2018, and no post-transplant dialysis. CONCLUSIONS: While PGD3 remains a challenge post LT, PGD3 at 72 h is not independently associated with decreased long-term survival, while complications such as dialysis and rejection are, in patients who survive index hospitalization. Transplant providers should be aggressive in preventing further complications in recipients with severe PGD to minimize the negative association on long-term survival.

Thoracic transplantation during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The worldwide pandemic caused by COVID-19, resulting from the infection by betacoronarvirus SARS-CoV-2, has dramatically altered healthcare worldwide. Due to the highly contagious nature of SARS-CoV2, coupled with hospitals and intensive care units being overwhelmed, numerous transplant programs either slowed or shut down completely. While there have been isolated reports of COVID-19 in transplant recipients, no study to date has examined how COVID-19 affected actual transplant patterns and outcomes in the United States. Of particular importance is the impact of COVID-19 on mortality in waitlisted patients and transplant recipients. Using the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients (SRTR) dataset, we compared waitlist and transplant characteristics from 3/2019-8/2019 to 3/2020-8/2020, as well as COVID-19 associated mortality in patients with prior heart or lung transplant or those active on the waitlist. Overall, there was an initial decrease in transplant volume in April 2020; however, volumes have normalized since then, with comparable outcomes to similar calendar months in 2019. Additionally, there were no significant changes in post-transplant outcomes or waiting list mortality. Given the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it would be beneficial to maintain current practices for thoracic transplantation, to continue to provide this life-saving therapy to those in need.

Lung transplantation in the septuagenarian can be successfully performed though long-term results impacted by diseases of aging.

BACKGROUND: Advanced age is considered a risk factor for lung transplantation (LTX). We sought to evaluate the long-term outcomes of LTX in the septuagenarian. METHODS: LTX recipients in the UNOS transplant registry (May 1, 2005-June 12, 2020) were stratified into 18-59, 60-69, and > = 70 years of age. Recipient and transplant characteristics were evaluated for survival, cause of death (COD), length of stay (LOS), and complications. A Kaplan-Meier analysis examined long-term survival for all patients stratified by age, specifically looking at cause of death. RESULTS: A total of 27 632 recipients were identified. As recipients aged, we found a decrease in proportion of cystic fibrosis and an increase in restrictive disease while obstructive disease peaked in the 60-69yo cohort (P < .001). Septuagenarians had higher rates of single LTX, male gender, and white race (P < .001). Older recipients had significantly longer donor recovery distances traveled with paradoxical shorter ischemic times, shorter hospital LOS and were transplanted at higher volume centers. There was no difference with in-hospital mortality among groups (P = .5). Acute rejection during initial hospitalization, rejection within 1 year, and post-transplant dialysis incidence decreased with age. Graft failure was a common COD in younger patients while malignancy and cardio/cerebrovascular diseases were common COD in > = 70yo. CONCLUSION: Select septuagenarian LTX candidates may be safely transplanted with relatively few complications. Immunosenescence and conditions of the aged are likely contributing factors to the decreased rejection and graft failure observations. Septuagenarians should not be excluded from LTX consideration based solely on age. Transplantation in septuagenarians should only be done in very selected patients (screened for malignancies and atherosclerotic disease) and these recipients should be carefully followed after transplantation because of these risk factors.

Safety of direct oral anticoagulants in solid organ transplant recipients: A meta-analysis.

There is limited evidence comparing direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) and warfarin in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients. We performed a pooled analysis to study the safety and efficacy of DOACs in this patient population. We searched PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases using the search terms "heart transplant" or "lung transplant" or "liver transplant" or "kidney transplant" or "pancreas transplant" and "direct oral anticoagulant" for literature search. Random effects model with Mantel-Haenszel method was used to pool the outcomes. Pooled analysis included 489 patients, of which 259 patients received DOACs and 230 patients received warfarin. When compared to warfarin, the use of DOACs was associated with decreased risk of composite bleed (RR .49, 95% CI .32-.76, p = .002). There were no differences in rates of major bleeding (RR .55, 95% CI .20-1.49, p = .24) or venous thromboembolism (RR .65, 95% CI .25-1.70, p = .38) between the two groups. Evidence from pooled analysis suggests that DOACs are comparable to warfarin in terms of safety in SOT recipients. Further research is warranted to conclusively determine whether DOACs are safe alternatives to warfarin for anticoagulation in SOT recipients.

Insights into early postoperative acute kidney injury following lung transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication after lung transplantation (LT) and is associated with higher cost and mortality. We sought to evaluate the incidence of postoperative AKI, defined as AKI within 14 days of transplant, and identify associated perioperative factors. METHODS: We conducted a single-center, retrospective review of 153 lung transplant recipients. Postoperative AKI was determined using the RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End Stage) criteria. Perioperative covariates and their association with postoperative AKI were analyzed using Cox proportional hazards. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were constructed to evaluate patient survival at 1 year and data finalization. A sub-analysis was performed evaluating factors associated with early AKI (within 48 h of transplant) and late AKI. RESULTS: Postoperative AKI occurred in 36.6% of patients with 51.8% of cases occurring within 48 h of LT. Recipient race, transplant type, cardiopulmonary support, and red blood cell administration were associated with postoperative AKI. Survival was significantly lower in patients with postoperative AKI following LT. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative AKI within 2 weeks of lung transplant is associated with lower short- and long-term survival. Perioperative factors associated with postoperative AKI may be potential points of intervention to minimize AKI development in the future.

Trends in Donation After Circulatory Death in Lung Transplantation in the United States: Impact Of Era.

Background: Use of lungs donated after circulatory death (DCD) has expanded, but changes in donor/recipient characteristics and comparison to brain dead donors (DBD) has not been studied. We examined the evolution of the use of DCD lungs for transplantation and compare outcomes to DBD lungs. Methods: The SRTR database was used to construct three 5-year intervals. Perioperative variables and survival were compared by era and for DCD vs. DBD. Geographic variation was estimated using recipient permanent address. Results: 728 DCD and 27,205 DBD lung transplants were identified. DCD volume increased from Era 1 (n = 73) to Era 3 (n = 528), representing 1.1% and 4.2% of lung transplants. Proportionally more DCD recipients were in ICU or on ECMO pre-transplant, and had shorter waitlist times. DCD donors were older, had lower PaO2/FiO2 ratios compared to DBD, more likely to be bilateral, had longer ischemic time, length of stay, post-op dialysis, and increased use of lung perfusion. There was no difference in overall survival. Geographically, use was heterogeneous. Conclusion: DCD utilization is low but increasing. Despite increasing ischemic time and transplantation into sicker patients, survival is similar, which supports further DCD use in lung transplantation. DCD lung transplantation presents an opportunity to continue to expand the donor pool.

Left ventricular outflow tract to left atrial fistula: A rare long-term complication of the commando procedure.

The commando procedure involves aortic and mitral valve replacement with complete reconstruction of the aorto-mitral curtain. It is often a surgical treatment for invasive infective endocarditis with abscess, or less commonly for radiation-induced heart disease with extensive calcification extending from the aortic valve onto the anterior mitral leaflet. Prosthetic valve endocarditis is a known long-term complication of this surgery; however, reports of other long-term outcomes are limited. We report the case of a 59-year-old male who developed a non-infectious left ventricular outflow tract to left atrial fistula, incidentally found 5 years after undergoing a commando procedure for radiation-induced heart disease.

Total artificial heart as a bridge to transplantation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Since the first implantation of a total artificial heart (TAH) 50 years ago the devices and technique have evolved to provide reliable support for patients with biventricular failure as a bridge to heart transplant. The purpose of this review is to discuss the history and evolution of devices, current devices, critical aspects of patient selection, tips and pitfalls of implantation, and future directions. RECENT FINDINGS: The most studied device on the market is the SynCardia TAH, which has been implanted in over 2000 patients worldwide and is the only device that is currently Food and Drug Administration approved as a bridge to transplant. The overall survival in patients supported by the device at 1 year is 42% while those that make it to transplant have a 1 year post transplant survival of 83%. A newer device the Aeson TAH (Carmat, Velizy-Villacoublay, France) was first implanted in France in 2013 and is currently under clinical trial in the United States. SUMMARY: Significant progress has been made in both the technology and technique of TAH implantation and these devices remain both a reliable and sometimes only option for patients with severe biventricular heart failure.

Disparities in heart transplantation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Heart transplantation remains the gold standard therapy for end stage heart failure, but barriers remain, preventing equitable access to and affecting outcomes following transplantation. The objective of this review is to summarize current and historical literature on the disparities that persist, and to highlight the gaps in evidence for further investigation. RECENT FINDINGS: Although progress has been made to increase the rates of advanced heart failure therapies to racial/ethnic minority populations and those with lower socioeconomic status, differential access and outcomes remain. The disparities that persist are categorized by patient demographics, social influences, geopolitical factors, and provider bias. SUMMARY: Disparities in heart transplantation exist, which span a wide spectrum. Healthcare professionals need to be cognizant of these disparities that patients face in terms of access to and outcomes for heart transplantation. Further research and system changes are needed to make heart transplantation a fairer option for patients of varying backgrounds with end stage heart failure.

Increased tolerance to stress in cardiac expressed gain-of-function of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel subunit Kir6.1.

BACKGROUND: The adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel opener diazoxide (DZX) prevents myocyte volume derangement and reduced contractility secondary to stress. KATP channels are composed of pore-forming (Kir6.1 or Kir6.2) and regulatory (sulfonylurea receptor, SUR1 or SUR2) subunits. Gain of function (GOF) of Kir6.1 subunits has been implicated in cardiac pathology in Cantu syndrome in humans (cardiomegaly, lymphedema, and pericardial effusions). We hypothesized that GOF of Kir6.1 subunits would result in altered myocyte response to stress. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Isolated cardiac myocytes from wild type (WT) and transgenic Kir6.1GOF mice were exposed to Tyrode's physiologic solution for 20 min, test solution (Tyrode's or stress [hyperkalemic cardioplegia {CPG, known myocyte stress}] +/- KATP channel opener DZX), followed by Tyrode's for 20 min. Myocyte volume and contractility were measured and compared. RESULTS: WT myocytes demonstrated significant swelling in response to stress, but significantly less swelling was seen in Kir6.1GOF myocytes. DZX prevented swelling secondary to CPG in WT but resulted in a nonsignificant reduction in swelling in Kir6.1GOF myocytes. Both WT and Kir6.1GOF myocytes demonstrated a reduction in contractility during stress, although this was only significant in Kir6.1GOF myocytes. DZX was not associated with an improvement in contractility in Kir6.1GOF myocytes following stress. CONCLUSIONS: Similar to previous results in Kir6.1(-/-) myocytes, Kir6.1GOF myocytes demonstrate resistance (less volume derangement) to stress of cardioplegia. Understanding the role of Kir6.1 in myocyte response to stress may aid in the treatment of patients with Cantu syndrome and warrants further investigation.

Surgery for Atrial Fibrillation.

Atrial fibrillation is the most common cardiac arrhythmia, and its treatment options include drug therapy or catheter-based or surgical interventions. The surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation has undergone multiple evolutions over the last several decades. The Cox-Maze procedure went on to become the gold standard for the surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation and is currently in its fourth iteration (Cox-Maze IV). This article reviews the indications and preoperative planning for performing a Cox-Maze IV procedure. This article also reviews the literature describing the surgical results for both approaches including comparisons of the Cox-Maze IV to the previous cut-and-sew method.

Surgical ablation for atrial fibrillation: techniques, indications, and results.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The aim of this review is to focus specifically on the indications, evolution of technique, and results of surgical ablation for atrial fibrillation. RECENT FINDINGS: With the introduction of the Cox-Maze IV procedure utilizing bipolar radiofrequency ablation and cryoablation, long-term studies have demonstrated a significant decrease in aortic cross-clamp times and major complications with a comparable rate of restoration of sinus rhythm. New hybrid approaches utilizing both catheter-based ablation and minimally invasive surgical approaches have been developed, but have not been standardized. Early studies have demonstrated reasonable success rates of hybrid procedures, with advantages that include confirmation of conduction block, decreased surgical morbidity, and possibly reduced morbidity. However, hybrid approaches have the disadvantage of significantly increased operative times. SUMMARY: The Cox-Maze IV is currently the gold standard for surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. New hybrid approaches have potential advantages with promising early results, but a standard lesion set, improvement in operative times, and long-term results still need to be evaluated.

Is Time Scheduling Important? An Analysis of Donor Heart Cross-clamp Times During Heart Transplantation.

Background: Outcomes in heart transplantation are affected by a variety of variables and patient factors. However, the impact of circadian rhythms, gene expression, and transcription remain underexplored. We thus evaluated the potential role of donor heart cross-clamp times on short-term and long-term outcomes after heart transplantation. Methods: A total of 31 713 heart transplants were identified from the United Network for Organ Sharing Database. Patients were first stratified on the basis of time of donor procurement: 12 am to 12 pm or 12 pm to 12 am. To evaluate a possible effect of circadian rhythms, donor time was further divided into 5 groups based on preclinical data: 4 am to 8 am; 8 am to 11 am; 11 am to 5 pm; 5 pm to 10 pm; 10 pm to 4 am. Groups were assessed with comparative statistics. Long-term survival was evaluated using Kaplan-Meier methods and a multivariate Cox proportional hazard model. Results: Patients who received hearts recovered between 12 am and 12 pm had significantly higher survival than those who received hearts recovered between 12 pm and 12 am. This survival difference was observed in both unadjusted (P = 0.002) and adjusted analyses (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89-0.97; P < 0.001). On unadjusted analysis, the survival difference among the 5 groups was insignificant (P = 0.07). Following adjustment, the periods of 11 am to 5 pm (HR: 1.09, 95% CI, 1.02-1.17; P = 0.012), 5 pm to 10 pm (HR: 1.11; 95% CI, 1.04-1.19; P = 0.002), and 10 pm to 4 am (HR: 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01-1.15; P = 0.034), were all independently associated with increased long-term mortality. Notably, the time of 8 am to 11 am was not associated with a change in survival (HR: 1.04; 95% CI, 0.96-1.14; P = 0.3). Conclusions: Given the independent association of donor timing and survival after adjustment in a large national cohort, further investigation into the role of donor circadian rhythm and donor procurement time is warranted in preclinical and clinical studies. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of this observation could potentially lead to the development of effective treatments and donor procurement processes that prepare the organs for transplantation in a better condition.

Does Size Matter? The Effect of Size of Distal Perfusion Catheter on Acute Limb Ischemia: A Meta-Analysis.

Prevention of limb ischemia in patients with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) is primarily achieved through the use of distal perfusion catheters (DPC). Our objective was to assess the role of DPC, and specifically the size of the catheter, in reducing the incidence of acute limb ischemia (ALI) through a meta-analysis. Seventeen studies met criteria for analysis. Pooled analysis included a total of 2,040 patients, of which 904 patients received ECMO with DPC and 1,136 patients underwent ECMO without DPC. Compared with ECMO alone, ECMO with DPC, regardless of size, significantly decreased ALI (relative risk [RR]: 0.49, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.31-0.77; p = 0.002). When comparing reactive versus prophylactic placement of DPC, prophylactic DPC was associated with significantly decreased ALI (RR: 0.41, 95% CI: 0.24-0.71; p = 0.02). No differences in mortality (RR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.76-1.03; p = 0.12) and bleeding events (RR: 1.43, 95% CI: 0.41-4.96; p = 0.58) were observed between the two groups. This analysis demonstrates that the placement of DPC, if done prophylactically and regardless of size, is associated with a reduced risk of ALI versus the absence of DPC placement, but is not associated with differences in mortality or bleeding events.

Impact of Temporary Preoperative Mechanical Support on Heart Transplant Outcomes.

We sought to assess the impact of temporary preoperative mechanical circulatory support (TPMCS) on heart transplantation outcomes. A total of 4,060 adult heart transplants from June 1, 2006, to December 31, 2019, were identified in the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients database as having TPMCS. Recipients were divided into groups based on their type of TPMCS: intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP), temporary ventricular assist device (VAD), biventricular assist device (BIVAD), and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Perioperative outcomes and survival were compared among groups. Recipients with IABP were associated with older age, a smoking history, and a significantly shorter wait list time ( p < 0.01). Recipients with ECMO had a significantly increased in-hospital mortality as well as an increased incidence of dialysis ( p < 0.01). Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed worse 1 and 5 year survival for recipients with ECMO. Cox model demonstrated a significantly increased risk of mortality with BIVAD (hazard ratio [HR], 1.33; 95% CI, 1.12-1.57; p < 0.01) and ECMO (HR, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.33-2.03; p < 0.01). While patients with IABP have a survival comparable to patients without TPMCS or durable left VAD, outcomes for BIVADs and ECMO are not as favorable. Transplantation centers must continue to make careful choices about the type of TPMCS utilized before heart transplant.

Thoracic retransplantation: Does time to retransplantation matter?

OBJECTIVE: For some individuals, chronic allograft failure is best treated with retransplantation. We sought to determine if time to retransplantation impacts short- and long-term outcomes for heart or lung retransplant recipients with a time to retransplantation more than 1 year. METHODS: The United Network for Organ Sharing/Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network STAR file was queried for all adult, first-time heart (June 1, 2006, to September 30, 2020) and lung (May 1, 2005, to September 30, 2020) retransplantations with a time to retransplantation of at least 1 year. Patients were grouped according to the tertile of time to retransplantation (tertile 1: 1-7.7 years, tertile 2: 7.7-14.7 years, tertile 3: 14.7+ years; lung: tertile 1: 1-2.8 years, tertile 2: 2.8-5.6 years, tertile 3: 5.6+ years). The primary outcome was survival after retransplantation. Comparative statistics identified differences in groups, and Kaplan-Meier methods and a Cox proportional hazard model were used for survival analysis. RESULTS: After selection, 908 heart and 871 lung retransplants were identified. Among heart retransplant recipients, tertile 1 was associated with male sex, smoking history, higher listing status, and increased mechanical support pretransplant. Tertile 3 had the highest rate of concomitant kidney transplant; however, the incidence of morbidity and in-hospital mortality was similar among the groups. Unadjusted and adjusted analyses revealed no survival difference among all groups. Regarding lung retransplant recipients, tertile 1 was associated with increased lung allocation score, pretransplant hospitalization, and mechanical support. Unadjusted and adjusted survival analyses revealed decreased survival in tertile 1. CONCLUSIONS: Time to retransplant does not appear to affect heart recipients with a time to retransplantation of more than 1 year; however, shorter time to retransplantation for prior lung recipients is associated with decreased survival. Potential lung retransplant candidates with a time to retransplantation of less than 2.8 years should be carefully evaluated before retransplantation.

Donor and Recipient Hepatitis C Status Does Not Affect Rejection in Thoracic Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Donors with hepatitis C virus (HCV) have expanded the donor pool for heart and lung transplantation, but concerns have arisen about rejection. We examined the incidence of rejection after heart and lung transplantation in recipients of HCV-positive donors as well as HCV-positive recipients. METHODS: Adults undergoing heart and lung transplantation from March 31, 2015 to December 31, 2019 were identified in the United Network for Organ Sharing/Organ Transplantation and Procurement Network Standard Transplant Analysis and Research file. Patients were stratified as donor-recipient HCV negative, donor positive, and recipient positive. Comparative statistics and a multilevel logistic regression model were used. RESULTS: Meeting the criteria were 10 624 heart transplant recipients. Donor-positive recipients were significantly associated with older age, blood group O, and shorter waitlist time. No significant differences existed with regards to treatment for rejection in the first year (negative, 19.5%; donor positive, 22.3%; recipient positive, 19.5%; P = .45) or other outcomes. On regression analysis HCV status was not associated with treated rejection; however center variability was significantly associated with treated rejection (median odds ratio, 2.18). Similarly, 9917 lung transplant recipients were identified. Donor-positive recipients were more commonly White and had obstructive disease and lower lung allocation scores. Both unadjusted (negative, 22.1%; donor positive, 23.0%; recipient positive, 18.6%; P = .43) and adjusted analyses failed to demonstrate a significant association between HCV status and treatment for rejection, whereas center variability remained significantly associated with treatment for rejection (median odds ratio, 2.41). CONCLUSIONS: Use of HCV donors has expanded the donor pool for heart and lung transplantation. HCV donor status was not associated with treatment for rejection in the first year, but center variability played a role in the incidence and treatment of rejection.

Mentorship Effectiveness in Cardiothoracic Surgical Training.

BACKGROUND: Mentoring is an essential component of cardiothoracic surgery training, yet trainees report varied experiences despite substantial efforts to enhance mentorship opportunities. This study aimed to evaluate mentorship effectiveness and identify gaps in mentorship education. METHODS: A survey was distributed to cardiothoracic surgical trainees in Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education-accredited programs (n = 531). Responses to 16 questions concerning trainee experiences, expectations, and perspectives on mentorship were collected. An 11-component mentorship effectiveness tool generated a composite score (0 to 55), with a score of 44 or lower indicating less effective mentorship. RESULTS: Sixty-seven residents completed the survey (12.6%), with most (83.6%) reporting a current mentor. Trainees with mentors cited "easy to work with and approachable" (44 of 58; 75.9%) as the major criterion for mentor selection, whereas trainees without a mentor reported an inability to identify one who truly reflected the resident's needs (6 of 11; 45.5%). Resident age, gender, race or ethnicity, marital status, family status, postgraduate year, and training program type or size were not associated with having a mentor (P = .15 to .73). The median mentorship effectiveness score was 51 (interquartile range, 44, 55). More than one-third of residents (25 of 67) had either no mentor (n = 6) or less effective mentorship (n = 16), or both (n = 3). Resident and program characteristics were not associated with mentorship effectiveness (P = .39 to .99). Finally, 61.2% of residents had not received education on effective mentorship, and 53.8% did not currently serve as a mentor. CONCLUSIONS: Many resident respondents have either no mentor or less effective mentorship, and most reported not having received education on mentorship. Addressing these gaps in mentorship training and delivery should be prioritized.