Phenotypic and genotypic analysis of antimicrobial resistance and population structure of gastroenteritis-related Aeromonas isolates.

BACKGROUND: The population structure and the correlation between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotypes and genotypes in Aeromonas species isolated from patients with gastroenteritis are not well understood. The aims of the study were to: (1) investigate the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Aeromonas species isolated from patients with gastroenteritis; (2) explore the relationship between AMR genes and resistance phenotypes; and (3) describe the population structure of these isolates and provide evidence of transmission events among them. METHODS: This microbiological survey was performed at the Microbiology Laboratory of the Emek Medical Center in Afula, Israel. Cultivation of Aeromonas was attempted from stool samples that tested positive by PCR. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) was performed using the Sensititre GN3F microdilution panel. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) was done using the Illumina NextSeq500/550 system. Phylogenetic studies involved multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and core genome (cg) MLST. Resistance mechanisms were identified using the Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database and compared with the AST results. RESULTS: The study included 67 patient-unique isolates. The species that were identified included A. caviae (n = 58), A. dhakensis (n = 3), A. media (n = 2), A. veronii (n = 2) and A. hydrophila (n = 2). Isolates were almost uniformly susceptible to amikacin, gentamicin, aztreonam, cefepime, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin and meropenem. All isolates with the exception of 1-2 isolates were resistant to ampicillin, cefazolin and ampicillin-sulbactam which was compatible with the presence of the blaOXA genes. Variable resistance rates were observed to cefuroxime, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone, piperacillin-tazobactam that were not correlated with the presence of other ß-lactamase genes. Resistance to tetracycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole correlated with the presence of tetA and sul1, respectively. The population structure of A. caviae was highly diverse with the minority of the isolates (16/57) clustering into six defined sequence types. A cgMLST-based distance of four genes was found in one pair of isolates, suggesting common source transmission. CONCLUSIONS: A. caviae is the dominant species related to gastroenteritis and is characterized by a diverse population structure, with almost no evidence for common-source transmission. Resistance rates to most antimicrobial agents were low and partially matched with the presence of resistance genes.

Phenotypic and genotypic analysis of antimicrobial resistance in Nocardia species.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance is common in Nocardia species but data regarding the molecular mechanisms beyond their resistance traits are limited. Our study aimed to determine the species distribution, the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles, and investigate the associations between the resistance traits and their genotypic determinants. METHODS: The study included 138 clinical strains of Nocardia from nine Israeli microbiology laboratories. MIC values of 12 antimicrobial agents were determined using broth microdilution. WGS was performed on 129 isolates of the eight predominant species. Bioinformatic analysis included phylogeny and determination of antimicrobial resistance genes and mutations. RESULTS: Among the isolates, Nocardia cyriacigeorgica was the most common species (36%), followed by Nocardia farcinica (16%), Nocardia wallacei (13%), Nocardia abscessus (9%) and Nocardia brasiliensis (8%). Linezolid was active against all isolates, followed by trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (93%) and amikacin (91%). Resistance to other antibiotics was species-specific, often associated with the presence of resistance genes or mutations: (1) aph(2″) in N. farcinica and N. wallacei (resistance to tobramycin); (ii) blaAST-1 in N. cyriacigeorgica and Nocardia neocaledoniensis (resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanate); (iii) blaFAR-1 in N. farcinica (resistance to ceftriaxone); (iv) Ser83Ala substitution in the gyrA gene in four species (resistance to ciprofloxacin); and (v) the 16S rRNA m1A1408 methyltransferase in N. wallacei isolates (correlating with amikacin resistance). CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of Nocardia species diversity, antibiotic resistance patterns, and the molecular basis of antimicrobial resistance. Resistance appears to follow species-related patterns, suggesting a lesser role for de novo evolution or transmission of antimicrobial resistance.

Construction of core genome multi-locus sequence typing schemes for population structure analyses of Nocardia species.

Nocardia, a member of the Actinobacteria phylum, populates diverse habitats globally, with certain species being the cause of various clinical infections in humans. There is paucity of data regarding the population structure of this genus and of established genomic-based phylogenetic methods. We examined the whole genome sequences of 193 isolates spanning five major pathogenic Nocardia species sourced from public databases, encompassing diverse geographic regions. Using the chewBBACA pipeline, a species-specific core genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST) schema was created for N. cyriacigeorgica, N. farcinica, N. brasiliensis, N. wallacei, and N. abscessus. Additional genomic features that were examined included virulence factor (VF) profile, total length and open-reading frame count, the core genome length and core gene count, and GC content. Our findings indicated that: (i) N. brasiliensis diverges significantly from the other four species, underscoring its distinct evolutionary trajectory; (ii) the population structures of all species were polyclonal, with phylogenetic clustering occurring in the minority of isolates; (iii) clonal complexes were largely restricted to specific geographical locations, rather than demonstrating a global distribution, and (iv) initial evidence suggests no direct common-source transmission amongst the studied strains. Our study establishes a comprehensive genome-based phylogenetic methodology for population structure of Nocardia species.

WarA, a remote homolog of NpmA and KamB from Nocardia wallacei, confers broad spectrum aminoglycoside resistance in Nocardia and Mycobacteria.

OBJECTIVES: Aminoglycoside resistance in bacteria is typically conferred by specific drug-modifying enzymes. Infrequently, such resistance is achieved through 16S ribosomal RNA methyltransferases, such as NpmA and KamB encoded by Escherichia coli and Streptoalloteichus tenebrarius, respectively. These enzymes are not widespread and have not been described in Nocardia species to date. METHODS: We report the genomic mining of 18 Nocardia wallacei isolates that were found to be specifically and substantially resistant to amikacin. RESULTS: We identified a gene coding for a protein with very distant homology to NpmA and KamB. However, 3-D modeling revealed that the tertiary structure of these three proteins was highly similar. Cloning and expressing this gene in two susceptible bacteria Nocardia asteroides, and Mycobacterium smegmatis (another Actinobacterium) led to high-level, pan-aminoglycoside resistance in both cases. We named this gene warA (Wallacei Amikacin Resistance A). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first description and experimental characterization of a gene of this family in Nocardia, and the first demonstration that such activity could lead to pan-aminoglycoside resistance in Mycobacteria as well. The discovery of this novel gene has important biotechnology and clinical implications.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Distributions of Clinical Isolates of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in Israel.

There is a scarcity of data regarding the antimicrobial susceptibility testing profiles of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) in Israel and other Middle Eastern countries. We aimed to describe the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of NTM in Israel. A total of 410 clinical isolates of NTM, identified to the species level using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry or hsp65 gene sequencing, were included. Minimum inhibitory concentrations for slowly growing mycobacteria (SGM) and rapidly growing mycobacteria (RGM) for 12 and 11 drugs were determined using the Sensititre SLOMYCOI and RAPMYCOI broth microdilution plates, respectively. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) was the most frequently isolated species (n = 148; 36%), followed by Mycobacterium simiae (n = 93; 23%), Mycobacterium abscessus group (n = 62; 15%), Mycobacterium kansasii (n = 27; 7%), and Mycobacterium fortuitum (n = 22; 5%) accounting together for 86% of isolates. The most active agents against SGM were amikacin (98%/85%/100%) and clarithromycin (97%/99%/100%), followed by moxifloxacin (25%/10%/100%) and linezolid (3%/6%/100%) for MAC, M. simiae, and M. kansasii, respectively. For RGM, the most active agents were amikacin (98%/100%/88%) followed by linezolid (48%/80%/100%) and clarithromycin (39%/28%/94%) for M. abscessus group, M. fortuitum, and M. chelonae, respectively. These findings can assist in guiding the treatment of NTM infections.

The Nocardial aph(2″) Gene Confers Tobramycin and Gentamicin Resistance and Is an Effective Positive Selection Marker in Mycobacteria and Nocardia.

The current study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using the aminoglycoside 2″-O-phosphotransferase aph(2″) gene as a positive selection marker in N. asteroides, M. smegmatis, M. abscessus and M. tuberculosis. The aph(2″) gene, known to confer resistance to tobramycin, was PCR amplified from N. farcinica and cloned into two plasmid vectors, pMSG383 and pDB151, harboring hygromycin and zeocin selection markers, respectively. The recombinant plasmids were transformed into the target microorganisms, and selectability was assessed against varying concentrations of tobramycin and using an E-test against gentamicin. The results indicated that the aph(2″) gene is a useful selection marker in Mycobacteria and Nocardia against tobramycin, with a good selectability at 2.5-10 µg/mL for M. smegmatis mc2-155 and N. asteroides ATCC 19,247, and 60-160 µg/mL for M. abscessus ATCC 19,977 and M. tuberculosis H37Ra. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of gentamicin for recombinant N. asteroides, M. smegmatis and M. abscessus was >256 µg/mL, whereas respective MIC in wild-type strains was 0.125 µg/mL, 0.38 µg/mL and 8 µg/mL, respectively. These findings demonstrate the potential of aph(2″) as a positive selection marker for genetic manipulation processes in Mycobacteria and Nocardia, thus facilitating their research and improving the efficiency of biotechnology applications. Conclusions: the aph(2″) gene is a useful, new selection marker for genetic manipulation of Nocardia and various Mycobacteria.

Glycopeptidolipid Defects Leading to Rough Morphotypes of Mycobacterium abscessus Do Not Confer Clinical Antibiotic Resistance.

Mycobacterium abscessus is an emerging pathogen causing severe pulmonary infections. Within chronically infected patients, M. abscessus isolates undergo molecular changes leading to increased virulence and antibiotic resistance. Specifically, mutations in glycopeptidolipid (GPL) synthesis genes, leading to the rough phenotype, are associated with invasive, nonremitting infections and a severe clinical course. It has been unclear whether GPL defects confer antibiotic resistance independently of other molecular changes. We used transposon technology to isolate a rough (GPL-defective; Tn MABS_4099cZeoR) mutant and compare it to a fully isogenic parent strain (ATCC 19977) bearing wild-type zeocin resistance (WTZeoR). Antibiotic susceptibility profiles of Tn_4099cZeoR and WTZeoR were tested and compared using the Sensititre RAPMYCOI antimicrobial susceptibility test plate. MICs were evaluated within clinically relevant values according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) standards. We found that M. abscessus with rough colony morphotype (Tn_4009c) had comparable antibiotic susceptibility to its smooth isogenic WT counterpart. Small differences (a 1:2 dilution) in MICs were found for imipenem, cefoxitin, and tigecycline, yet those small differences did not change the clinical susceptibility report for these antibiotics, as they fell within the same CLSI cutoffs for resistance. While small alternations in susceptibility to imipenem, cefoxitin, and tigecycline were noted, we conclude that the GPL mutations in M. abscessus did not confer clinically significant antibiotic resistance. Increased antibiotic resistance in the clinical setting may occur in an unrelated and parallel manner to GPL mutations. IMPORTANCE Mycobacterium abscessus chronically infects patients with preexisting lung diseases, leading to progressive deterioration in pulmonary function. The common perception among clinicians is that the rough phenotype is associated with progressive disease and severe clinical course, manifested as a widespread inflammatory response and resistance to antibacterials. However, as clinical isolates accumulate hundreds of mutations over the prolonged course of infection, it is unclear whether the rough phenotype per se is responsible for the antibiotic resistance seen in late-stage infections, or whether the resistance is related to other genetic changes in the bacteria. Previous studies mostly compared rough and smooth clinical isolates. Here, for the first time, we compared WT smooth bacteria to a specific rough, GPL-associated, otherwise-isogenic mutant. We determined that the rough morphotype had essentially identical antibiotic susceptibilities as the parent strain. The mechanistic basis for the antibiotic resistance observed in rough clinical isolates is therefore most probably related to other genetic determinants.

Borrelia persica infection in dogs and cats: clinical manifestations, clinicopathological findings and genetic characterization.

BACKGROUND: Relapsing fever (RF) is an acute infectious disease caused by arthropod-borne spirochetes of the genus Borrelia. The disease is characterized by recurrent episodes of fever that concur with spirochetemia. The RF borrelioses include louse-borne RF caused by Borrelia recurrentis and tick-borne endemic RF transmitted by argasid soft ticks and caused by several Borrelia spp. such as B. crocidurae, B. coriaceae, B. duttoni, B. hermsii, B. hispanica and B. persica. Human infection with B. persica is transmitted by the soft tick Ornithodoros tholozani and has been reported from Iran, Israel, Egypt, India, and Central Asia. METHODS: During 2003-2015, five cats and five dogs from northern, central and southern Israel were presented for veterinary care and detected with borrelia spirochetemia by blood smear microscopy. The causative infective agent in these animals was identified and characterized by PCR from blood and sequencing of parts of the flagellin (flab), 16S rRNA and glycerophosphodiester phosphodiestrase (GlpQ) genes. RESULTS: All animals were infected with B. persica genetically identical to the causative agent of human RF. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that DNA sequences from these pet carnivores clustered together with B. persica genotypes I and II from humans and O. tholozani ticks and distinctly from other RF Borrelia spp. The main clinical findings in cats included lethargy, anorexia, anemia in 5/5 cats and thrombocytopenia in 4/5. All dogs were lethargic and anorectic, 4/5 were febrile and anemic and 3/5 were thrombocytopenic. Three dogs were co-infected with Babesia spp. The animals were all treated with antibiotics and the survival rate of both dogs and cats was 80 %. The cat and dog that succumbed to disease died one day after the initiation of antibiotic treatment, while survival in the others was followed by the rapid disappearance of spirochetemia. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of disease due to B. persica infection in cats and the first case series in dogs. Infection was associated with anemia and thrombocytopenia. Fever was more frequently observed in dogs than cats. Domestic canines and felines suffer from clinical disease due to B. persica infection and may also serve as sentinels for human infection.