Genome-wide screen identifies novel machineries required for both ciliogenesis and cell cycle arrest upon serum starvation.

Biogenesis of the primary cilium, a cellular organelle mediating various signaling pathways, is generally coordinated with cell cycle exit/re-entry. Although the dynamic cell cycle-associated profile of the primary cilium has been largely accepted, the mechanism governing the link between ciliogenesis and cell cycle progression has been poorly understood. Using a human genome-wide RNAi screen, we identify genes encoding subunits of the spliceosome and proteasome as novel regulators of ciliogenesis. We demonstrate that 1) the mRNA processing-related hits are essential for RNA expression of molecules acting in cilia disassembly, such as AURKA and PLK1, and 2) the ubiquitin-proteasome systems (UPS)-involved hits are necessary for proteolysis of molecules acting in cilia assembly, such as IFT88 and CPAP. In particular, we show that these screen hit-associated mechanisms are crucial for both cilia assembly and cell cycle arrest in response to serum withdrawal. Finally, our data suggest that the mRNA processing mechanism may modulate the UPS-dependent decay of cilia assembly regulators to control ciliary resorption-coupled cell cycle re-entry.

Functional genomic screen for modulators of ciliogenesis and cilium length.

Primary cilia are evolutionarily conserved cellular organelles that organize diverse signalling pathways. Defects in the formation or function of primary cilia are associated with a spectrum of human diseases and developmental abnormalities. Genetic screens in model organisms have discovered core machineries of cilium assembly and maintenance. However, regulatory molecules that coordinate the biogenesis of primary cilia with other cellular processes, including cytoskeletal organization, vesicle trafficking and cell-cell adhesion, remain to be identified. Here we report the results of a functional genomic screen using RNA interference (RNAi) to identify human genes involved in ciliogenesis control. The screen identified 36 positive and 13 negative ciliogenesis modulators, which include molecules involved in actin dynamics and vesicle trafficking. Further investigation demonstrated that blocking actin assembly facilitates ciliogenesis by stabilizing the pericentrosomal preciliary compartment (PPC), a previously uncharacterized compact vesiculotubular structure storing transmembrane proteins destined for cilia during the early phase of ciliogenesis. The PPC was labelled by recycling endosome markers. Moreover, knockdown of modulators that are involved in the endocytic recycling pathway affected the formation of the PPC as well as ciliogenesis. Our results uncover a critical regulatory step that couples actin dynamics and endocytic recycling with ciliogenesis, and also provides potential target molecules for future study.

Identification of the GPR55 antagonist binding site using a novel set of high-potency GPR55 selective ligands.

GPR55 is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that has been implicated in inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain, metabolic disorder, bone development, and cancer. Initially deorphanized as a cannabinoid receptor, GPR55 has been shown to be activated by non-cannabinoid ligands such as l-α-lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI). While there is a growing body of evidence of physiological and pathophysiological roles for GPR55, the paucity of specific antagonists has limited its study. In collaboration with the Molecular Libraries Probe Production Centers Network initiative, we identified a series of GPR55 antagonists using a ß-arrestin, high-throughput, high-content screen of ~300000 compounds. This screen yielded novel, GPR55 antagonist chemotypes with IC50 values in the range of 0.16-2.72 µM [Heynen-Genel, S., et al. (2010) Screening for Selective Ligands for GPR55: Antagonists (ML191, ML192, ML193) (Bookshelf ID NBK66153; PMID entry 22091481)]. Importantly, many of the GPR55 antagonists were completely selective, with no agonism or antagonism against GPR35, CB1, or CB2 up to 20 µM. Using a model of the GPR55 inactive state, we studied the binding of an antagonist series that emerged from this screen. These studies suggest that GPR55 antagonists possess a head region that occupies a horizontal binding pocket extending into the extracellular loop region, a central ligand portion that fits vertically in the receptor binding pocket and terminates with a pendant aromatic or heterocyclic ring that juts out. Both the region that extends extracellularly and the pendant ring are features associated with antagonism. Taken together, our results provide a set of design rules for the development of second-generation GPR55 selective antagonists.

Identification of the GPR55 agonist binding site using a novel set of high-potency GPR55 selective ligands.

Marijuana is the most widely abused illegal drug, and its spectrum of effects suggests that several receptors are responsible for the activity. Two cannabinoid receptor subtypes, CB1 and CB2, have been identified, but the complex pharmacological properties of exogenous cannabinoids and endocannabinoids are not fully explained by their signaling. The orphan receptor GPR55 binds a subset of CB1 and CB2 ligands and has been proposed as a cannabinoid receptor. This designation, however, is controversial as a result of recent studies in which lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI) was identified as a GPR55 agonist. Defining a biological role for GPR55 requires GPR55 selective ligands that have been unavailable. From a ß-arrestin, high-throughput, high-content screen of 300000 compounds run in collaboration with the Molecular Libraries Probe Production Centers Network initiative (PubChem AID1965), we identified potent GPR55 selective agonists. By modeling of the GPR55 activated state, we compared the GPR55 binding conformations of three of the novel agonists obtained from the screen, CID1792197, CID1172084, and CID2440433 (PubChem Compound IDs), with that of LPI. Our modeling indicates the molecular shapes and electrostatic potential distributions of these agonists mimic those of LPI; the GPR55 binding site accommodates ligands that have inverted-L or T shapes with long, thin profiles that can fit vertically deep in the receptor binding pocket while their broad head regions occupy a horizontal binding pocket near the GPR55 extracellular loops. Our results will allow the optimization and design of second-generation GPR55 ligands and provide a means for distinguishing GPR55 selective ligands from those interacting with cannabinoid receptors.

Identification and Characterization of IMD-0354 as a Glutamine Carrier Protein Inhibitor in Melanoma.

A key hallmark of cancer, altered metabolism, is central to cancer pathogenesis and therapy resistance. Robust glutamine metabolism is among cellular processes regulating tumor progression and responsiveness to therapy in a number of cancers, including melanoma and breast cancer. Among mechanisms underlying the increase in glutamine metabolism in tumors is enhanced glutamine uptake mediated by the glutamine transporters, with SLC1A5 (also known as ASCT2) shown to play a predominant role. Correspondingly, increased SLC1A5 expression coincides with poorer survival in patients with breast cancer and melanoma. Therefore, we performed an image-based screen to identify small molecules that are able to prevent the localization of SLC1A5 to the plasma membrane without impacting cell shape. From 7,000 small molecules, nine were selected as hits, of which one (IMD-0354) qualified for further detailed functional assessment. IMD-0354 was confirmed as a potent inhibitor of glutamine uptake that attained sustained low intracellular glutamine levels. Concomitant with its inhibition of glutamine uptake, IMD-0354 attenuated mTOR signaling, suppressed two- and three-dimensional growth of melanoma cells, and induced cell-cycle arrest, autophagy, and apoptosis. Pronounced effect of IMD-0354 was observed in different tumor-derived cell lines, compared with nontransformed cells. RNA-sequencing analysis identified the unfolded protein response, cell cycle, and response (DNA damage response pathways) to be affected by IMD-0354. Combination of IMD-0354 with GLS1 or LDHA inhibitors enhanced melanoma cell death. In vivo, IMD-0354 suppressed melanoma growth in a xenograft model. As a modulator of glutamine metabolism, IMD-0354 may serve as an important therapeutic and experimental tool that deserves further examination.

Targeting of the orphan receptor GPR35 by pamoic acid: a potent activator of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and ß-arrestin2 with antinociceptive activity.

Known agonists of the orphan receptor GPR35 are kynurenic acid, zaprinast, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylproplyamino) benzoic acid, and lysophosphatidic acids. Their relatively low affinities for GPR35 and prominent off-target effects at other pathways, however, diminish their utility for understanding GPR35 signaling and for identifying potential therapeutic uses of GPR35. In a screen of the Prestwick Library of drugs and drug-like compounds, we have found that pamoic acid is a potent GPR35 agonist. Pamoic acid is considered by the Food and Drug Administration as an inactive compound that enables long-acting formulations of numerous drugs, such as the antihelminthics oxantel pamoate and pyrantel pamoate; the psychoactive compounds hydroxyzine pamoate (Vistaril) and imipramine pamoate (Tofranil-PM); and the peptide hormones triptorelin pamoate (Trelstar) and octreotide pamoate (OncoLar). We have found that pamoic acid induces a G(i/o)-linked, GPR35-mediated increase in the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, recruitment of ß-arrestin2 to GPR35, and internalization of GPR35. In mice, it attenuates visceral pain perception, indicating an antinociceptive effect, possibly through GPR35 receptors. We have also identified in collaboration with the Sanford-Burnham Institute Molecular Libraries Probe Production Center new classes of GPR35 antagonist compounds, including the nanomolar potency antagonist methyl-5-[(tert-butylcarbamothioylhydrazinylidene)methyl]-1-(2,4-difluorophenyl)pyrazole-4-carboxylate (CID2745687). Pamoic acid and potent antagonists such as CID2745687 present novel opportunities for expanding the chemical space of GPR35, elucidating GPR35 pharmacology, and stimulating GPR35-associated drug development. Our results indicate that the unexpected biological functions of pamoic acid may yield potential new uses for a common drug constituent.

Protein kinase A can block EphA2 receptor-mediated cell repulsion by increasing EphA2 S897 phosphorylation.

The EphA2 receptor tyrosine kinase plays key roles in tissue homeostasis and disease processes such as cancer, pathological angiogenesis, and inflammation through two distinct signaling mechanisms. EphA2 "canonical" signaling involves ephrin-A ligand binding, tyrosine autophosphorylation, and kinase activity; EphA2 "noncanonical" signaling involves phosphorylation of serine 897 (S897) by AKT and RSK kinases. To identify small molecules counteracting EphA2 canonical signaling, we developed a high-content screening platform measuring inhibition of ephrin-A1-induced PC3 prostate cancer cell retraction. Surprisingly, most hits from a screened collection of pharmacologically active compounds are agents that elevate intracellular cAMP by activating G protein-coupled receptors such as the ß2-adrenoceptor. We found that cAMP promotes phosphorylation of S897 by protein kinase A (PKA) as well as increases the phosphorylation of several nearby serine/threonine residues, which constitute a phosphorylation hotspot. Whereas EphA2 canonical and noncanonical signaling have been viewed as mutually exclusive, we show that S897 phosphorylation by PKA can coexist with EphA2 tyrosine phosphorylation and block cell retraction induced by EphA2 kinase activity. Our findings reveal a novel paradigm in EphA2 function involving the interplay of canonical and noncanonical signaling and highlight the ability of the ß2-adrenoceptor/cAMP/PKA axis to rewire EphA2 signaling in a subset of cancer cells.

Cardiac Glycosides Activate the Tumor Suppressor and Viral Restriction Factor Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein (PML).

Cardiac glycosides (CGs), inhibitors of Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA), used clinically to treat heart failure, have garnered recent attention as potential anti-cancer and anti-viral agents. A high-throughput phenotypic screen designed to identify modulators of promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) nuclear body (NB) formation revealed the CG gitoxigenin as a potent activator of PML. We demonstrate that multiple structurally distinct CGs activate the formation of PML NBs and induce PML protein SUMOylation in an NKA-dependent fashion. CG effects on PML occur at the post-transcriptional level, mechanistically distinct from previously described PML activators and are mediated through signaling events downstream of NKA. Curiously, genomic deletion of PML in human cancer cells failed to abrogate the cytotoxic effects of CGs and other apoptotic stimuli such as ceramide and arsenic trioxide that were previously shown to function through PML in mice. These findings suggest that alternative pathways can compensate for PML loss to mediate apoptosis in response to CGs and other apoptotic stimuli.

ERN1 and ALPK1 inhibit differentiation of bi-potential tumor-initiating cells in human breast cancer.

Cancers are heterogeneous by nature. While traditional oncology screens commonly use a single endpoint of cell viability, altering the phenotype of tumor-initiating cells may reveal alternative targets that regulate cellular growth by processes other than apoptosis or cell division. We evaluated the impact of knocking down expression of 420 kinases in bi-lineage triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells that express characteristics of both myoepithelial and luminal cells. Knockdown of ERN1 or ALPK1 induces bi-lineage MDA-MB-468 cells to lose the myoepithelial marker keratin 5 but not the luminal markers keratin 8 and GATA3. In addition, these cells exhibit increased ß-casein production. These changes are associated with decreased proliferation and clonogenicity in spheroid cultures and anchorage-independent growth assays. Confirmation of these assays was completed in vivo, where ERN1- or ALPK1-deficient TNBC cells are less tumorigenic. Finally, treatment with K252a, a kinase inhibitor active on ERN1, similarly impairs anchorage-independent growth of multiple breast cancer cell lines. This study supports the strategy to identify new molecular targets for types of cancer driven by cells that retain some capacity for normal differentiation to a non-tumorigenic phenotype. ERN1 and ALPK1 are potential targets for therapeutic development.

Functional genome-wide siRNA screen identifies KIAA0586 as mutated in Joubert syndrome.

Defective primary ciliogenesis or cilium stability forms the basis of human ciliopathies, including Joubert syndrome (JS), with defective cerebellar vermis development. We performed a high-content genome-wide small interfering RNA (siRNA) screen to identify genes regulating ciliogenesis as candidates for JS. We analyzed results with a supervised-learning approach, using SYSCILIA gold standard, Cildb3.0, a centriole siRNA screen and the GTex project, identifying 591 likely candidates. Intersection of this data with whole exome results from 145 individuals with unexplained JS identified six families with predominantly compound heterozygous mutations in KIAA0586. A c.428del base deletion in 0.1% of the general population was found in trans with a second mutation in an additional set of 9 of 163 unexplained JS patients. KIAA0586 is an orthologue of chick Talpid3, required for ciliogenesis and Sonic hedgehog signaling. Our results uncover a relatively high frequency cause for JS and contribute a list of candidates for future gene discoveries in ciliopathies.

Identification of Inhibitors of triacylglyceride accumulation in muscle cells: comparing HTS results from 1536-well plate-based and high-content platforms.

Excess caloric consumption leads to triacylglyceride (TAG) accumulation in tissues that do not typically store fat, such as skeletal muscle. This ectopic accumulation alters cells, contributing to the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome, a major health problem worldwide. We developed a 1536-well assay to measure intracellular TAG accumulation in differentiating H9c2 myoblasts. For this assay, cells were incubated with oleic acid to stimulate TAG accumulation prior to adding compounds. We used Nile red as a fluorescent dye to quantify TAG content with a microplate reader. The cell nuclei were counterstained with DAPI nuclear stain to assess cell count and filter cytotoxic compounds. In parallel, we developed an image-based assay in H9c2 cells to measure lipid accumulation levels via high-content analysis, exploiting the dual-emission spectra characteristic of Nile red staining of neutral and phospholipids. Using both approaches, we successfully screened ~227,000 compounds from the National Institutes of Health library. The screening data from the plate reader and IC50 values correlated with that from the Opera QEHS cell imager. The 1536-well plate reader assay is a powerful high-throughout screening platform to identify potent inhibitors of TAG accumulation to better understand the molecular pathways involved in lipid metabolism that lead to lipotoxicity.

Inhibition of melanoma growth by small molecules that promote the mitochondrial localization of ATF2.

PURPOSE: Effective therapy for malignant melanoma, the leading cause of death from skin cancer, remains an area of significant unmet need in oncology. The elevated expression of PKCε in advanced metastatic melanoma results in the increased phosphorylation of the transcription factor ATF2 on threonine 52, which causes its nuclear localization and confers its oncogenic activities. The nuclear-to-mitochondrial translocation of ATF2 following genotoxic stress promotes apoptosis, a function that is largely lost in melanoma cells, due to its confined nuclear localization. Therefore, promoting the nuclear export of ATF2, which sensitizes melanoma cells to apoptosis, represents a novel therapeutic modality. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We conducted a pilot high-throughput screen of 3,800 compounds to identify small molecules that promote melanoma cell death by inducing the cytoplasmic localization of ATF2. The imaging-based ATF2 translocation assay was conducted using UACC903 melanoma cells that stably express doxycycline-inducible GFP-ATF2. RESULTS: We identified two compounds (SBI-0089410 and SBI-0087702) that promoted the cytoplasmic localization of ATF2, reduced cell viability, inhibited colony formation, cell motility, and anchorage-free growth, and increased mitochondrial membrane permeability. SBI-0089410 inhibited the 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-l3-acetate (TPA)-induced membrane translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms, whereas both compounds decreased ATF2 phosphorylation by PKCε and ATF2 transcriptional activity. Overexpression of either constitutively active PKCε or phosphomimic mutant ATF2(T52E) attenuated the cellular effects of the compounds. CONCLUSION: The imaging-based high-throughput screen provides a proof-of-concept for the identification of small molecules that block the oncogenic addiction to PKCε signaling by promoting ATF2 nuclear export, resulting in mitochondrial membrane leakage and melanoma cell death.

Discovery of ML314, a Brain Penetrant Non-Peptidic ß-Arrestin Biased Agonist of the Neurotensin NTR1 Receptor.

The neurotensin 1 receptor (NTR1) is an important therapeutic target for a range of disease states including addiction. A high throughput screening campaign, followed by medicinal chemistry optimization, led to the discovery of a non-peptidic ß-arrestin biased agonist for NTR1. The lead compound, 2-cyclopropyl-6,7-dimethoxy-4-(4-(2-methoxyphenyl)- piperazin-1-yl)quinazoline, 32 (ML314), exhibits full agonist behavior against NTR1 (EC50 = 2.0 µM) in the primary assay and selectivity against NTR2. The effect of 32 is blocked by the NTR1 antagonist SR142948A in a dose dependent manner. Unlike peptide based NTR1 agonists, compound 32 has no significant response in a Ca2+ mobilization assay and is thus a biased agonist that activates the ß-arrestin pathway rather than the traditional G q coupled pathway. This bias has distinct biochemical and functional consequences that may lead to physiological advantages. Compound 32 displays good brain penetration in rodents, and studies examining its in vivo properties are underway.

Functional genomic and high-content screening for target discovery and deconvolution.

INTRODUCTION: Functional genomic screens apply knowledge gained from the sequencing of the human genome toward rapid methods of identifying genes involved in cellular function based on a specific phenotype. This approach has been made possible through advances in both molecular biology and automation. The utility of this approach has been further enhanced through the application of image-based high-content screening: an automated microscopy and quantitative image analysis platform. These approaches can significantly enhance the acquisition of novel targets for drug discovery. AREAS COVERED: Both the utility and potential issues associated with functional genomic screening approaches are discussed in this review, along with examples that illustrate both. The considerations for high-content screening applied to functional genomics are also presented. EXPERT OPINION: Functional genomic screening and high-content screening are extremely useful in the identification of new drug targets. However, the technical, experimental, and computational parameters have an enormous influence on the results. Thus, although new targets are identified, caution should be applied to the interpretation of screening data in isolation. Genomic screens should be viewed as an integral component of a target identification campaign that requires both the acquisition of orthogonal data, as well as a rigorous validation strategy.

Discovery of Small Molecule Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist and Antagonist Chemotypes through a HTS and Hit Refinement Strategy.

Herein we present the outcome of a high throughput screening (HTS) campaign-based strategy for the rapid identification and optimization of selective and general chemotypes for both kappa (κ) opioid receptor (KOR) activation and inhibition. In this program, we have developed potent antagonists (IC(50) < 120 nM) or agonists of high binding affinity (K(i) < 3 nM). In contrast to many important KOR ligands, the compounds presented here are highly modular, readily synthesized and, in most cases, achiral. The four new chemotypes hold promise for further development into chemical tools for studying the KOR or as potential therapeutic lead candidates.

Optimization and application of median filter corrections to relieve diverse spatial patterns in microtiter plate data.

The standard (STD) 5 × 5 hybrid median filter (HMF) was previously described as a nonparametric local backestimator of spatially arrayed microtiter plate (MTP) data. As such, the HMF is a useful tool for mitigating global and sporadic systematic error in MTP data arrays. Presented here is the first known HMF correction of a primary screen suffering from systematic error best described as gradient vectors. Application of the STD 5 × 5 HMF to the primary screen raw data reduced background signal deviation, thereby improving the assay dynamic range and hit confirmation rate. While this HMF can correct gradient vectors, it does not properly correct periodic patterns that may present in other screening campaigns. To address this issue, 1 × 7 median and a row/column 5 × 5 hybrid median filter kernels (1 × 7 MF and RC 5 × 5 HMF) were designed ad hoc, to better fit periodic error patterns. The correction data show periodic error in simulated MTP data arrays is reduced by these alternative filter designs and that multiple corrective filters can be combined in serial operations for progressive reduction of complex error patterns in a MTP data array.

A cell-based high-content screening assay reveals activators and inhibitors of cancer cell invasion.

Acquisition of invasive cell behavior underlies tumor progression and metastasis. To further define the molecular mechanisms underlying invasive behavior, we developed a high-throughput screening strategy to quantitate invadopodia, which are actin-rich membrane protrusions of cancer cells that contribute to tissue invasion and matrix remodeling. We tested the LOPAC 1280 collection of pharmacologically active agents in a high-content, image-based assay and identified compounds that inhibited invadopodium formation without overt toxicity, as well as compounds that increased invadopodia number. The chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel increased both the number of invadopodia and the invasive behavior of various human cancer cell lines, effects that have potential clinical implications for its use before surgical removal of a primary tumor (neoadjuvant therapy) or in patients with chemoresistant tumors. Several compounds that inhibited invasion have been characterized as cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitors, and loss-of-function experiments determined that Cdk5 was the relevant target. We further determined that Cdk5 promoted both invadopodium formation and cancer cell invasion by phosphorylating and thus decreasing the abundance of the actin regulatory protein caldesmon.

A high-content screening (HCS) assay for the identification of chemical inducers of PML oncogenic domains (PODs).

PML is a multi-functional protein with roles in tumor suppression and host defense against viruses. When active, PML localizes to subnuclear structures named PML oncogenic domains (PODs) or PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), whereas inactive PML is located diffusely throughout the nucleus of cells. The objective of the current study was to develop a high content screening (HCS) assay for the identification of chemical activators of PML. We describe methods for automated analysis of POD formation using high throughput microscopy (HTM) to localize PML immunofluorescence in conjunction with image analysis software for POD quantification. Using this HCS assay in 384 well format, we performed pilot screens of a small synthetic chemical library and mixture-based combinatorial libraries, demonstrating the robust performance of the assay. HCS counter-screening assays were also developed for hit characterization, based on immunofluorescence analyses of the subcellular location of phosphorylated H2AX or phosphorylated CHK1, which increase in a punctate nuclear pattern in response to DNA damage. Thus, the HCS assay devised here represents a high throughput screen that can be utilized to discover POD-inducing compounds that may restore the tumor suppressor activity of PML in cancers or possibly promote anti-viral states.

Hybrid median filter background estimator for correcting distortions in microtiter plate data.

Microtiter plate (MTP) assays often exhibit distortions, such as caused by edge-dependent drying and robotic fluid handling variation. Distortions vary by assay system but can have both systematic patterns (predictable from plate to plate) and random (sporadic and unpredictable) components. Random errors can be especially difficult to resolve by assay optimization alone, and postassay algorithms reported to date have smoothing effects that often blunt hits. We implemented a 5 x 5 bidirectional hybrid median filter (HMF) as a local background estimator to scale each data point to the MTP global background median and compared it with a recently described Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) technique for correcting errors on computationally and experimentally generated MTP datasets. Experimental data were generated from a 384-well format fluorescent bioassay using cells engineered to express eGFP and DsRED. MTP arrays were produced with and without control treatments used to simulate hits in random wells. The HMF demonstrated the greatest improvements in MTP coefficients of variation and dynamic range (defined by the ratio of average hit amplitude to standard deviation, SD) for all synthetic and experimental MTPs examined. After HMF application to a MTP of eGFP signal from mouse insulinoma (MIN6) cells obtained by a plate-reader, the assay coefficient of variation (CV) decreased from 8.0% in the raw dataset to 5.1% and the hit amplitudes were reduced by only 1% while the DFT method increased the CV by 36.0% and reduced the hit amplitude by 21%. Thus, our results show that the bidirectional HMF provides superior corrections of MTP data distortions while at the same time preserving hit amplitudes and improving dynamic range. The software to perform hybrid median filter MTP corrections is available at http://bccg.burnham.org/HTS/HMF_Download_Page.aspx, password is pbushway.

Phenothiazine neuroleptics signal to the human insulin promoter as revealed by a novel high-throughput screen.

A number of diabetogenic stimuli interact to influence insulin promoter activity, making it an attractive target for both mechanistic studies and therapeutic interventions. High-throughput screening (HTS) for insulin promoter modulators has the potential to reveal novel inputs into the control of that central element of the pancreatic beta-cell. A cell line from human islets in which the expression of insulin and other beta-cell-restricted genes are modulated by an inducible form of the bHLH transcription factor E47 was developed. This cell line, T6PNE, was adapted for HTS by transduction with a vector expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of the human insulin promoter. The resulting cell line was screened against a library of known drugs for those that increase insulin promoter activity. Members of the phenothiazine class of neuroleptics increased insulin gene expression upon short-term exposure. Chronic treatment, however, resulted in suppression of insulin promoter activity, consistent with the effect of phenothiazines observed clinically to induce diabetes in chronically treated patients. In addition to providing insights into previously unrecognized targets and mechanisms of action of phenothiazines, the novel cell line described here provides a broadly applicable platform for mining new molecular drug targets and central regulators of beta-cell differentiated function.