Evaluating online data of water quality changes in a pilot drinking water distribution system with multivariate data exploration methods.

The distribution of drinking water generates soft deposits and biofilms in the pipelines of distribution systems. Disturbances in water distribution can detach these deposits and biofilms and thus deteriorate the water quality. We studied the effects of simulated pressure shocks on the water quality with online analysers. The study was conducted with copper and composite plastic pipelines in a pilot distribution system. The online data gathered during the study was evaluated with Self-Organising Map (SOM) and Sammon's mapping, which are useful methods in exploring large amounts of multivariate data. The objective was to test the usefulness of these methods in pinpointing the abnormal water quality changes in the online data. The pressure shocks increased temporarily the number of particles, turbidity and electrical conductivity. SOM and Sammon's mapping were able to separate these situations from the normal data and thus make those visible. Therefore these methods make it possible to detect abrupt changes in water quality and thus to react rapidly to any disturbances in the system. These methods are useful in developing alert systems and predictive applications connected to online monitoring.

Estimates of microbial quality and concentration of copper in distributed drinking water are highly dependent on sampling strategy.

The numbers of bacteria generally increase in distributed water. Often household pipelines or water fittings (e.g., taps) represent the most critical location for microbial growth in water distribution systems. According to the European Union drinking water directive, there should not be abnormal changes in the colony counts in water. We used a pilot distribution system to study the effects of water stagnation on drinking water microbial quality, concentration of copper and formation of biofilms with two commonly used pipeline materials in households; copper and plastic (polyethylene). Water stagnation for more than 4h significantly increased both the copper concentration and the number of bacteria in water. Heterotrophic plate counts were six times higher in PE pipes and ten times higher in copper pipes after 16 h of stagnation than after only 40 min stagnation. The increase in the heterotrophic plate counts was linear with time in both copper and plastic pipelines. In the distribution system, bacteria originated mainly from biofilms, because in laboratory tests with water, there was only minor growth of bacteria after 16 h stagnation. Our study indicates that water stagnation in the distribution system clearly affects microbial numbers and the concentration of copper in water, and should be considered when planning the sampling strategy for drinking water quality control in distribution systems.

The effects of changing water flow velocity on the formation of biofilms and water quality in pilot distribution system consisting of copper or polyethylene pipes.

We studied the effects of flow velocity on the formation of biofilms and the concentration of bacteria in water in copper and plastic (polyethylene, PE) pipes. The formation of biofilms increased with the flow velocity of water. The increase in microbial numbers and contents of ATP was clearer in the PE pipes than in the copper pipes. This was also seen as increased consumption of microbial nutrients in the pipeline system. This indicates that the mass transfer of nutrients is in major role in the growth of biofilms. However, the increased biomass of biofilms did not affect microbial numbers in the water. Rapid changes in water flow rate resuspended biofilms and sediments which increased the concentrations of bacteria and copper in water. The disturbance caused by the changing water flow was also seen as an increase in the particle counts and water turbidity recorded with online instrumentation.

Pipeline materials modify the effectiveness of disinfectants in drinking water distribution systems.

We studied how pipe material can modify the effectiveness of UV- and chlorine disinfection in drinking water and biofilms. This study was done with two pipe materials: copper and composite plastic (polyethylene, PE) in a pilot scale water distribution network. UV-disinfection decreased viable bacterial numbers in the pilot waterworks and outlet water of pipes on average by 79%, but in biofilms its disinfecting effect was minor. Chlorine decreased effectively the microbial numbers in water and biofilms of PE pipes. In outlet water from copper pipes, the effect of chlorination was weaker; microbial numbers increased back to the level before chlorination within a few days. In the biofilms present in the copper pipes, chlorine decreased microbial numbers only in front of the pipeline. One reason for weaker efficiency of chlorine in copper pipes was that its concentration declined more rapidly in the copper pipes than in the PE pipes. These results means that copper pipes may require a higher chlorine dosage than plastic pipes to achieve effective disinfection of the pipes.

Impact of UV disinfection on microbially available phosphorus, organic carbon, and microbial growth in drinking water.

UV irradiation at a wavelength of 253.7 nm (UV(254)) is commonly used for drinking water disinfection. UV radiation is known to convert organically combined phosphorus to orthophosphate and to degrade natural organic matter. We studied if UV disinfection increases the amount of microbially available forms of organic carbon and phosphorus in drinking waters with different characteristics, and if these changes in water chemical quality could enhance the microbial growth in drinking water. The UV(254) dose (15-50 mWs/cm(2)) used in waterworks reduced the concentration of assimilable organic carbon and the sum of the molecular size fractions. The release of microbially available phosphorus needed higher doses (204 mWs/cm(2)) of UV(254) radiation. Of bacteria in drinking water, 90% were inactivated with UV(254)-irradiation doses below 50 mWs/cm(2). A high dose (501 mWs/cm(2)) of UV(254) radiation inhibited the microbial growth in water.

Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes.

We studied the changes in water quality and formation of biofilms occurring in a pilot-scale water distribution system with two generally used pipe materials: copper and plastic (polyethylene, PE). The formation of biofilms with time was analysed as the number of total bacteria, heterotrophic plate counts and the concentration of ATP in biofilms. At the end of the experiment (after 308 days), microbial community structure, viable biomass and gram-negative bacterial biomass were analysed via lipid biomarkers (phospholipid fatty acids and lipopolysaccharide 3-hydroxy fatty acids), and the numbers of virus-like particles and total bacteria were enumerated by SYBR Green I staining. The formation of biofilm was slower in copper pipes than in the PE pipes, but after 200 days there was no difference in microbial numbers between the pipe materials. Copper ion led to lower microbial numbers in water during the first 200 days, but thereafter there were no differences between the two pipe materials. The number of virus-like particles was lower in biofilms and in outlet water from the copper pipes than PE pipes. Pipe material influenced also the microbial and gram-negative bacterial community structure in biofilms and water.

Effects of reaction conditions on nuclear laundry water treatment in Fenton process.

This study presents the efficiency of Fenton process in the degradation of organic compounds of nuclear laundry water. The influence of Fe(2+) and hydrogen peroxide ratio, hydrogen peroxide dose, pH and treatment time were investigated. The degradation of non-ionic surfactant and other organic compounds was analysed as COD, TOC and molecular weight distribution (MWD). The most cost-effective degradation conditions were at H(2)O(2)/Fe(2+) stoichiometric molar ratio of 2 with 5 min mixing and H(2)O(2) dose of 1000 mg l(-1). With the initial pH of 6, the reductions of COD and TOC were 85% and 69%, respectively. However, the removal of the organic compounds was mainly carried out by Fenton-based Fe(3+) coagulation rather than Fenton oxidation. Fenton process proved to be much more efficient than previously performed ozone-based oxidation processes.