Patterns of Electrocardiographic Abnormalities in Children with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a common cardiomyopathy in children, is an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Early recognition and appropriate management are important. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is often used as a screening tool in children to detect heart disease. The ECG patterns in children with HCM are not well described.ECGs collected from an international cohort of children, and adolescents (≤ 21 years) with HCM were reviewed. 482 ECGs met inclusion criteria. Age ranged from 1 day to 21 years, median 13 years. Of the 482 ECGs, 57 (12%) were normal. The most common abnormalities noted were left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in 108/482 (22%) and biventricular hypertrophy (BVH) in 116/482 (24%) Of the patients with LVH/BVH (n = 224), 135 (60%) also had a strain pattern (LVH in 83, BVH in 52). Isolated strain pattern (in the absence of criteria for hypertrophy) was seen in 43/482 (9%). Isolated pathologic Q waves were seen in 71/482 (15%). Pediatric HCM, 88% have an abnormal ECG. The most common ECG abnormalities were LVH or BVH with or without strain. Strain pattern without hypertrophy and a pathologic Q wave were present in a significant proportion (24%) of patients. Thus, a significant number of children with HCM have ECG abnormalities that are not typical for "hypertrophy". The presence of the ECG abnormalities described above in a child should prompt further examination with an echocardiogram to rule out HCM.

Impact of Obesity on Left Ventricular Thickness in Children with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.

Obesity is associated with additional left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in adults with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). It is not known whether obesity can lead to further LVH in children with HCM. Echocardiographic LV dimensions were determined in 504 children with HCM. Measurements of interventricular septal thickness (IVST) and posterior wall thickness (PWT), and patients' weight and height were recorded. Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 99th percentile for age and sex. IVST data was available for 498 and PWT data for 484 patients. Patient age ranged from 2 to 20 years (mean ± SD, 12.5 ± 3.9) and 340 (68%) were males. Overall, patient BMI ranged from 7 to 50 (22.7 ± 6.1). Obesity (BMI 18-50, mean 29.1) was present in 140 children aged 2-19.6 (11.3 ± 4.1). The overall mean IVST was 20.5 ± 9.6 mm and the overall mean PWT was 11.0 ± 8.4 mm. The mean IVST in the obese patients was 21.6 ± 10.0 mm and mean PWT was 13.3 ± 14.7 mm. The mean IVST in the non-obese patients was 20.1 ± 9.5 mm and mean PWT was 10.4 ± 4.3 mm. Obesity was not significantly associated with IVST (p = 0.12), but was associated with increased PWT (0.0011). Obesity is associated with increased PWT but not IVST in children with HCM. Whether obesity and its impact on LVH influences clinical outcomes in children with HCM needs to be studied.

Irrigated-tip catheters for radiofrequency ablation of right-sided accessory pathways in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Catheter ablation of right-sided accessory pathways (APs) has lower success and higher recurrence rates compared to left-sided substrates. Irrigated-tip catheter (ITC) ablation might offer an advantage in this setting but data about its use in patients below 18 years are scarce. The aim of this study was to compare an ITC approach to conventional catheter ablation. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of all patients <18 years undergoing radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for right-sided APs from 2004 to 2014 at our institution was performed. Patients either underwent an ITC approach in combination with 3-D mapping (Group 1; n  =  53) or a conventional non-ITC approach (Group 2; n  =  52). Study endpoints were acute procedural success, safety, and recurrence rate. A total of 105 mostly adolescent patients (56.2% male; median age 14 years) with 107 right-sided APs were included. RESULTS: The prevailing anatomic AP locations were right posteroseptal (44.9%), right anterior/anterolateral (24.3%), and right lateral (13.1%). Acute success (94.3% vs 94.2%) did not differ between the groups. One major complication (pericardial effusion) occurred in the non-ITC group. Overall, freedom from AP recurrence was 94% at 4 years in the ITC group, and 81% at 4 years in the non-ITC group (P  =  0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The use of ITCs in combination with 3-D mapping system for ablation of right-sided APs in adolescents has a high acute success rate, is safe, and associated with a significantly reduced recurrence rate compared to a non-ITC/conventional approach. It might be considered as alternative approach in this age group.

Internal Cardioverter Defibrillator Indications and Therapies after Atrial Baffle Procedure for d-Transposition of the Great Arteries: A Multicenter Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most important cause of late mortality after atrial baffle procedure for d-transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA). Experience with internal cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) therapy in this population is limited. We conducted a multicenter cohort study to determine the current state of ICD therapy in individuals after atrial baffle procedure. METHODS: Demographic and clinical data as well as data on device implantation, programming, ICD discharges, and complications after atrial baffle procedure for d-TGA from four German centers were analyzed retrospectively. RESULTS: ICD implantation was undertaken in 33 subjects. ICD implantation was undertaken as primary prevention in 29 (88%) and secondary prevention in four (12%) individuals. There were 21 (64%) subjects with atrial reentrant tachycardia (IART). During a median follow-up of 4.8 years, seven appropriate ICD therapies were delivered in three (10%) individuals with primary prevention indication. No appropriate shocks were documented in subjects with secondary prevention indication. A total of 12 inappropriate ICD discharges occurred in eight (24%) individuals due to IART (n = 6) or lead failure (n = 2). ICD-related complications were noted in seven individuals (21%): lead dislodgement/failure in five (15%) and ICD infection in two subjects (6%). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of individuals received an ICD for primary prevention of SCD, thus representing a liberal attitude of physicians for ICD implantation. During a median follow-up of 4.8 years, the rate of appropriate ICD therapies was low and clearly exceeded by inappropriate ICD discharges. Lead failure and IART were present in >20% of the individuals and were frequent reasons for inappropriate ICD discharges. Facing these results, rigorous treatment of IART and careful ICD programming seems mandatory.

Long-term follow-up after cryoablation for adolescent atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia: recurrence is not predictable.

AIMS: Data about the long-term outcome after cryoablation for atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) in the paediatric population indicate that recurrence rates are higher with cryo than with radiofrequency energy (RF). The purpose of this study was to review our institutional long-term outcome after cryoablation for AVNRT and to seek for predictors of recurrence. METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty-nine patients (28 female, age 14 ± 2.7 years) undergoing slow-pathway modulation or ablation for AVNRT at our institution from 2004 to 2008 were included in the study.  Acute success was obtained in all patients (100%) with a mean procedure time of 164 ± 50 min and a mean fluoroscopy time of 13 ± 8 min. During a follow-up time of 30 ± 1.9 months, AVNRT recurrence occurred in 11/49 patients (22.4%). Age, sex, number of cryomappings or ablations, catheter tip (4 mm vs. 6 mm), or ablation endpoint (slow-pathway ablation vs. modulation) were not predictive for recurrence. In eight patients, reablation using cryo was performed. All these patients remained free of arrhythmia symptoms during a follow-up of 30 ± 8 months following the second procedure. CONCLUSION: Although cryoablation for the treatment for AVNRT in paediatric and adolescent patients is safe and associated with a high acute success rate, AVNRT recurrence occurs in 22% of patients during long-term follow-up without identifiable predictors for recurrence. A second cryoablation procedure leads to a success rate of 100% during long-term follow-up.

Impact and Modifiers of Ventricular Pacing in Patients With Single Ventricle Circulation.

BACKGROUND: Palliation of the single ventricle (SV) circulation is associated with a burden of lifelong complications. Previous studies have identified that the need for a permanent ventricular pacing system (PPMv) may be associated with additional adverse long-term outcomes. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to quantify the attributable risk of PPMv in patients with SV, and to identify modifiable risk factors. METHODS: This international study was sponsored by the Pediatric and Congenital Electrophysiology Society. Centers contributed baseline and longitudinal data for functionally SV patients with PPMv. Enrollment was at implantation. Controls were matched 1:1 to PPMv subjects by ventricular morphology and sex, identified within center, and enrolled at matched age. Primary outcome was transplantation or death. RESULTS: In total, 236 PPMv subjects and 213 matched controls were identified (22 centers, 9 countries). Median age at enrollment was 5.3 years (quartiles: 1.5-13.2 years), follow-up 6.9 years (3.4-11.6 years). Median percent ventricular pacing (Vp) was 90.8% (25th-75th percentile: 4.3%-100%) in the PPMv cohort. Across 213 matched pairs, multivariable HR for death/transplant associated with PPMv was 3.8 (95% CI 1.9-7.6; P < 0.001). Within the PPMv population, higher Vp (HR: 1.009 per %; P = 0.009), higher QRS z-score (HR: 1.19; P = 0.009) and nonapical lead position (HR: 2.17; P = 0.042) were all associated with death/transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: PPMv in patients with SV is associated with increased risk of heart transplantation and death, despite controlling for increased associated morbidity of the PPMv cohort. Increased Vp, higher QRS z-score, and nonapical ventricular lead position are all associated with higher risk of adverse outcome and may be modifiable risk factors.

Risk factors for lethal arrhythmic events in children and adolescents with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and an implantable defibrillator: An international multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Predictors of risk of lethal arrhythmic events (LAE) is poorly understood and may differ from adults in children with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine predictors of LAE in children with HCM. METHODS: A retrospective data collection was performed on 446 children and teenagers 20 years and younger (290 [65%] male; mean age 10.1 ± 5.7 years) with idiopathic HCM from 35 centers. Patients were classified as group 1 (HCM with LAE) if having a secondary prevention implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) or primary prevention ICD with appropriate interventions or group 2 (HCM without LAE) if having a primary prevention ICD without appropriate interventions. RESULTS: There were 152 children (34%) in group 1 and 294 (66%) in group 2. Risk factors for group 1 by univariate analysis were septal thickness, posterior left ventricular (LV) wall thickness, lower LV outflow gradient, and Q wave > 3 mm in inferior electrocardiographic leads. Factors not associated with LAE were family history of SCD, abnormal blood pressure response to exercise, and ventricular tachycardia on ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring. Risk factors for SCD by multivariate analysis were age at ICD placement (hazard ratio [HR] 0.9; P = .0025), LV posterior wall thickness z score (HR 1.02; P < .005), and LV outflow gradient < 30 mm Hg (HR 2.0; P < .006). LV posterior wall thickness z score ≥ 5 was associated with LAE. CONCLUSION: Risk factors for LAE appear different in children compared to adults. Conventional adult risk factors were not significant in children. Further prospective studies are needed to improve risk stratification for LAE in children with HCM.