The isolated and combined effects of folic acid and synthetic bioactive compounds against Abeta(25-35)-induced toxicity in human microglial cells.

Folic acid plays an important role in neuronal development. A series of newly synthesized bioactive compounds (NSCs) was reported to exhibit immunoactive and neuroprotective functions. The isolated and combined effects of folic acid and NSCs against beta-amyloid (Abeta)-induced cytotoxicity are poorly understood. These effects were tested using human microglia cells (C13NJ) subjected to Abeta(25-35) challenge. According to an MTT assay, treatment of C13NJ cells with Abeta(25-35) at 10-100 microM for 48 h induced 18%-43% cellular death in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05). Abeta(25-35) treatment at 25 microM induced nitrite oxide (NO) release, elevated superoxide production, and reduced the distribution of cells in the S phase. Preincubation of C13NJ with 100 microM folic acid protected against Abeta(25-35)-induced cell death, which coincided with a reduction in NO release by folic acid supplements. NSC47 at a level of 50 microM protected against Abeta(25-35)-induced cell death and reduced Abeta-promoted superoxide production (p < 0.05). Folic acid in combination with NSC47 at their cytoprotective doses did not synergistically ameliorate Abeta(25-35)-associated NO release, superoxide production, or cell cycle arrest. Taken together, folic acid or NSC treatment alone, but not the combined regimen, protected against Abeta(25-35)-induced cell death, which may partially, if not completely, be mediated by free radical-scavenging effects.

Id1 and Sonic Hedgehog Mediate Cell Cycle Reentry and Apoptosis Induced by Amyloid Beta-Peptide in Post-mitotic Cortical Neurons.

Amyloid beta-peptide (Aß), the neurotoxic component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains, is known to trigger cell cycle reentry in post-mitotic neurons followed by apoptosis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Recently, we have reported that Aßs stimulate the expression of inhibitor of differentiation-1 (Id1) to induce sonic hedgehog (SHH) (Hung et al., Mol Neurobiol 53(2):793-809, 2016), and both are mitogens capable of triggering cell cycle progression. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that Aß-induced Id1 and SHH contribute to cell cycle reentry leading to apoptosis in neurons. We found that Aß triggered cell cycle progression in the post-mitotic neurons, as indicated by the increased expression of two G1-phase markers including cyclin D1 and phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein (pRb), two G2-phase markers such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and incorporation of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) into newly synthesized DNA, as well as the mitotic marker histone H3 phosphorylated at Ser-10. As expected, Aß also enhanced caspase-3 cleavage in the cortical neurons. Id1 siRNA, the neutralization antibody against SHH (SHH-Ab), and the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)-4/6 inhibitor PD0332991 all attenuated, in part or in full, the Aß-induced expression of these cell cycle markers. Indeed, exogenous recombinant Id1 protein and the biologically active N-terminal fragment of SHH (SHH-N) were both sufficient to enhance the expression of cell cycle markers independent of Aß. Taken together, our results revealed the critical roles of Id1 and SHH mediating Aß-dependent cell cycle reentry and subsequently caspase-dependent apoptosis in the fully differentiated post-mitotic neurons, at least in vitro.

Inhibitor of Differentiation-1 and Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Mediate Sonic Hedgehog Induction by Amyloid Beta-Peptide in Rat Cortical Neurons.

One major pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the accumulation of senile plaques mainly composed of neurotoxic amyloid beta-peptide (Aß) in the patients' brains. Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is a morphogen critically involved in the embryonic development of the central nervous system (CNS). In the present study, we tested whether Aß may induce SHH expression and explored its underlying mechanisms. We found that both Aß25-35 and Aß1-42 enhanced SHH expression in the primary cortical neurons derived from fetal rat brains. Immunohistochemistry revealed heightened expression of SHH in the cortex and hippocampus of aged (9 and 12 months old) AD transgenic mouse brains as compared to age-matched littermate controls. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay demonstrated that Aß25-35 enhanced binding of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) to the promoter of the Shh gene in primary cortical cultures; consistently, Aß25-35 induction of SHH was abolished by HIF-1α small interfering RNA (siRNA). Aß25-35 also time-dependently induced inhibitor of differentiation-1 (Id1) that has been shown to stabilize HIF-1α; further, Aß25-35-mediated induction of HIF-1α and SHH was both suppressed by Id1 siRNA. Pharmacological induction of HIF-1α by cobalt chloride and application of the cell-permeable recombinant Id1 proteins were both sufficient to induce SHH expression. Finally, both the SHH pathway inhibitor cyclopamine and its neutralizing antibody attenuated Aß cytotoxicity, albeit to a minor extent. These results thus established a signaling cascade of "Aß â†’ Id1 → HIF-1 → SHH" in primary rat cortical cultures; furthermore, SHH may in part contribute to Aß neurotoxicity.