Determination and inference of eukaryotic transcription factor sequence specificity.

Transcription factor (TF) DNA sequence preferences direct their regulatory activity, but are currently known for only ∼1% of eukaryotic TFs. Broadly sampling DNA-binding domain (DBD) types from multiple eukaryotic clades, we determined DNA sequence preferences for >1,000 TFs encompassing 54 different DBD classes from 131 diverse eukaryotes. We find that closely related DBDs almost always have very similar DNA sequence preferences, enabling inference of motifs for ∼34% of the ∼170,000 known or predicted eukaryotic TFs. Sequences matching both measured and inferred motifs are enriched in chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) peaks and upstream of transcription start sites in diverse eukaryotic lineages. SNPs defining expression quantitative trait loci in Arabidopsis promoters are also enriched for predicted TF binding sites. Importantly, our motif "library" can be used to identify specific TFs whose binding may be altered by human disease risk alleles. These data present a powerful resource for mapping transcriptional networks across eukaryotes.

BzpF is a CREB-like transcription factor that regulates spore maturation and stability in Dictyostelium.

The cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) is a highly conserved transcription factor that integrates signaling through the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) in many eukaryotes. PKA plays a critical role in Dictyostelium development but no CREB homologue has been identified in this system. Here we show that Dictyostelium utilizes a CREB-like protein, BzpF, to integrate PKA signaling during late development. bzpF(-) mutants produce compromised spores, which are extremely unstable and germination defective. Previously, we have found that BzpF binds the canonical CRE motif in vitro. In this paper, we determined the DNA binding specificity of BzpF using protein binding microarray (PBM) and showed that the motif with the highest specificity is a CRE-like sequence. BzpF is necessary to activate the transcription of at least 15 PKA-regulated, late-developmental target genes whose promoters contain BzpF binding motifs. BzpF is sufficient to activate two of these genes. The comparison of RNA sequencing data between wild type and bzpF(-) mutant revealed that the mutant fails to express 205 genes, many of which encode cellulose-binding and sugar-binding proteins. We propose that BzpF is a CREB-like transcription factor that regulates spore maturation and stability in a PKA-related manner.

New components of the Dictyostelium PKA pathway revealed by Bayesian analysis of expression data.

BACKGROUND: Identifying candidate genes in genetic networks is important for understanding regulation and biological function. Large gene expression datasets contain relevant information about genetic networks, but mining the data is not a trivial task. Algorithms that infer Bayesian networks from expression data are powerful tools for learning complex genetic networks, since they can incorporate prior knowledge and uncover higher-order dependencies among genes. However, these algorithms are computationally demanding, so novel techniques that allow targeted exploration for discovering new members of known pathways are essential. RESULTS: Here we describe a Bayesian network approach that addresses a specific network within a large dataset to discover new components. Our algorithm draws individual genes from a large gene-expression repository, and ranks them as potential members of a known pathway. We apply this method to discover new components of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) pathway, a central regulator of Dictyostelium discoideum development. The PKA network is well studied in D. discoideum but the transcriptional networks that regulate PKA activity and the transcriptional outcomes of PKA function are largely unknown. Most of the genes highly ranked by our method encode either known components of the PKA pathway or are good candidates. We tested 5 uncharacterized highly ranked genes by creating mutant strains and identified a candidate cAMP-response element-binding protein, yet undiscovered in D. discoideum, and a histidine kinase, a candidate upstream regulator of PKA activity. CONCLUSIONS: The single-gene expansion method is useful in identifying new components of known pathways. The method takes advantage of the Bayesian framework to incorporate prior biological knowledge and discovers higher-order dependencies among genes while greatly reducing the computational resources required to process high-throughput datasets.

The putative bZIP transcription factor BzpN slows proliferation and functions in the regulation of cell density by autocrine signals in Dictyostelium.

The secreted proteins AprA and CfaD function as autocrine signals that inhibit cell proliferation in Dictyostelium discoideum, thereby regulating cell numbers by a negative feedback mechanism. We report here that the putative basic leucine zipper transcription factor BzpN plays a role in the inhibition of proliferation by AprA and CfaD. Cells lacking BzpN proliferate more rapidly than wild-type cells but do not reach a higher stationary density. Recombinant AprA inhibits wild-type cell proliferation but does not inhibit the proliferation of cells lacking BzpN. Recombinant CfaD also inhibits wild-type cell proliferation, but promotes the proliferation of cells lacking BzpN. Overexpression of BzpN results in a reduced cell density at stationary phase, and this phenotype requires AprA, CfaD, and the kinase QkgA. Conditioned media from high-density cells stops the proliferation of wild-type but not bzpN(-) cells and induces a nuclear localization of a BzpN-GFP fusion protein, though this localization does not require AprA or CfaD. Together, the data suggest that BzpN is necessary for some but not all of the effects of AprA and CfaD, and that BzpN may function downstream of AprA and CfaD in a signal transduction pathway that inhibits proliferation.

Separase loss of function cooperates with the loss of p53 in the initiation and progression of T- and B-cell lymphoma, leukemia and aneuploidy in mice.

BACKGROUND: Cohesin protease Separase plays a key role in faithful segregation of sister chromatids by cleaving the cohesin complex at the metaphase to anaphase transition. Homozygous deletion of ESPL1 gene that encodes Separase protein results in embryonic lethality in mice and Separase overexpression lead to aneuploidy and tumorigenesis. However, the effect of Separase haploinsufficiency has not been thoroughly investigated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we examined the effect of ESPL1 heterozygosity using a hypomorphic mouse model that has reduced germline Separase activity. We report that while ESPL1 mutant (ESPL1 (+/hyp)) mice have a normal phenotype, in the absence of p53, these mice develop spontaneous T- and B-cell lymphomas, and leukemia with a significantly shortened latency as compared to p53 null mice. The ESPL1 hypomorphic, p53 heterozygous transgenic mice (ESPL1(+/hyp), p53(+/-)) also show a significantly reduced life span with an altered tumor spectrum of carcinomas and sarcomas compared to p53(+/-) mice alone. Furthermore, ESPL1(+/hyp), p53(-/-) mice display significantly higher levels of genetic instability and aneuploidy in normal cells, as indicated by the abnormal metaphase counts and SKY analysis of primary splenocytes. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results indicate that reduced levels of Separase act synergistically with loss of p53 in the initiation and progression of B- and T- cell lymphomas, which is aided by increased chromosomal missegregation and accumulation of genomic instability. ESPL1(+/hyp), p53(-/-) mice provide a new animal model for mechanistic study of aggressive lymphoma and also for preclinical evaluation of new agents for its therapy.

Comparative genomics of the social amoebae Dictyostelium discoideum and Dictyostelium purpureum.

BACKGROUND: The social amoebae (Dictyostelia) are a diverse group of Amoebozoa that achieve multicellularity by aggregation and undergo morphogenesis into fruiting bodies with terminally differentiated spores and stalk cells. There are four groups of dictyostelids, with the most derived being a group that contains the model species Dictyostelium discoideum. RESULTS: We have produced a draft genome sequence of another group dictyostelid, Dictyostelium purpureum, and compare it to the D. discoideum genome. The assembly (8.41 × coverage) comprises 799 scaffolds totaling 33.0 Mb, comparable to the D. discoideum genome size. Sequence comparisons suggest that these two dictyostelids shared a common ancestor approximately 400 million years ago. In spite of this divergence, most orthologs reside in small clusters of conserved synteny. Comparative analyses revealed a core set of orthologous genes that illuminate dictyostelid physiology, as well as differences in gene family content. Interesting patterns of gene conservation and divergence are also evident, suggesting function differences; some protein families, such as the histidine kinases, have undergone little functional change, whereas others, such as the polyketide synthases, have undergone extensive diversification. The abundant amino acid homopolymers encoded in both genomes are generally not found in homologous positions within proteins, so they are unlikely to derive from ancestral DNA triplet repeats. Genes involved in the social stage evolved more rapidly than others, consistent with either relaxed selection or accelerated evolution due to social conflict. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this new genome sequence and comparative analysis shed light on the biology and evolution of the Dictyostelia.

bZIP transcription factor interactions regulate DIF responses in Dictyostelium.

The signalling molecule DIF-1 is required for normal cell fate choice and patterning in Dictyostelium. To understand how these developmental processes are regulated will require knowledge of how cells receive and respond to the DIF-1 signal. Previously, we have described a bZIP transcription factor, DimA, which is required for cells to respond to DIF-1. However, it was unknown whether DimA activity is required to activate the DIF response pathway in certain cells or is a component of the response pathway itself. In this study, we describe the identification of a DimA-related bZIP transcription factor, DimB. Rapid changes in the subcellular localisation of both DimA and DimB in response to DIF-1 suggest that they are directly downstream of the DIF-1 signal. Genetic and biochemical interactions between DimA and DimB provides evidence that their ability to regulate diverse targets in response to DIF-1 is partly due to their ability to form homo- and heterodimeric complexes. DimA and DimB are therefore direct regulators of cellular responses to DIF-1.

Transcriptional transitions during Dictyostelium spore germination.

Many protozoa form spores in response to adversity; therefore, spore germination is a key process in their life cycle. Dictyostelium discoideum sporulates in response to starvation following a developmental program. Germination is characterized by two visible changes, spore swelling and the emergence of amoeba from the spore capsule. Several studies have indicated that an additional process termed spore activation is also required, but the physiological changes that characterize the three phases are largely uncharacterized. We used microarrays to monitor global transcriptional transitions as a surrogate measure of the physiological changes that occur during germination. Using two independent methods to induce germination, we identified changes in mRNA levels that characterized the germination process rather than changes that resulted from the induction method. We found that germination is characterized by three transitions. The first transition occurs during activation, while the spores appear dormant, the largest transition occurs when swelling begins, and the third transition occurs when emergence begins. These findings indicate that activation and swelling are not passive occurrences, such as dilution of inhibitors or spore rehydration, but are active processes that are accompanied by dramatic events in mRNA degradation and de novo transcription. These findings confirm and extend earlier reports that genes such as celA are regulated during spore germination. We also found by mutation analysis that the unconventional myosin gene myoI, which is induced during early germination, plays roles in the maintenance of dormancy and in spore swelling. This finding suggests that some of the observed transcriptional changes are required for spore germination.