RESUMO
Objectives Prolonged oxytocin exposure may result in increased blood loss during delivery. Our objective was to determine whether an oxytocin rest period before cesarean delivery had an impact on blood loss. Methods We performed a retrospective cohort study of women who underwent primary cesarean delivery after oxytocin augmentation. The primary outcome was change between pre- and postoperative hematocrit (Hct) in women with less than 60-min oxytocin rest period (<60 min) and greater than 60-min rest period (>60 min). Results There was no difference in demographic characteristics (age, BMI, or gestational age at delivery) between the two groups. Women in the >60 min group had a higher cumulative dose and longer duration of oxytocin administration. There was no significant difference in change in Hct between the two groups when controlling for these factors. Conclusions We did not find a significant correlation between the duration of the oxytocin rest period and blood loss. Oxytocin washout periods of greater than 60 min may not result in decreased blood loss at cesarean delivery, and thus, women may not benefit from such oxytocin washout periods.
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Perda Sanguínea Cirúrgica , Cesárea , Relação Dose-Resposta a Droga , Duração da Terapia , Trabalho de Parto Induzido , Ocitocina , Hemorragia Pós-Parto , Adulto , Perda Sanguínea Cirúrgica/prevenção & controle , Perda Sanguínea Cirúrgica/estatística & dados numéricos , Cesárea/efeitos adversos , Cesárea/métodos , Feminino , Humanos , Trabalho de Parto Induzido/efeitos adversos , Trabalho de Parto Induzido/métodos , Avaliação de Processos e Resultados em Cuidados de Saúde , Ocitócicos/administração & dosagem , Ocitócicos/efeitos adversos , Ocitócicos/farmacocinética , Ocitocina/administração & dosagem , Ocitocina/efeitos adversos , Ocitocina/farmacocinética , Hemorragia Pós-Parto/diagnóstico , Hemorragia Pós-Parto/etiologia , Hemorragia Pós-Parto/prevenção & controle , Gravidez , Cuidados Pré-Operatórios/efeitos adversos , Cuidados Pré-Operatórios/métodos , Contração Uterina/efeitos dos fármacosRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Mechanisms linking herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are not fully defined. We tested the hypothesis that HSV-2 and HIV dual infection is associated with cervicovaginal inflammation and/or vaginal dysbiosis. METHODS: Genital tract samples were obtained weekly over a 12-week period from 30 women seropositive (+) for HIV and HSV-2 and 15 women each who were seropositive for one or seronegative (-) for both viruses. Immune mediators, antimicrobial activity, and microbial composition and diversity were compared. RESULTS: Significant differences in the concentrations of interferon-γ (P = .002), tumor necrosis factor-α (P = .03), human beta defensin 1 (P = .001), secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (P = .01), and lysozyme (P = .03) were observed across the 4 groups (Kruskal-Wallis). There were also significant differences in vaginal microbial alpha diversity (Simpson index) (P = .0046). Specifically, when comparing HIV-1+/HSV-2+ to HIV-1-/HSV-2- women, a decrease in Lactobacillus crispatus and increase in diverse anaerobes was observed. The number of genital HSV outbreaks was greater in HIV+ versus HIV- women (39 versus 12) (P = .04), but there were no significant differences when comparing outbreak to non-outbreak visits. CONCLUSIONS: Increased microbial diversity and cervicovaginal inflammation in HIV and HSV-2 dually infected women may adversely impact genital health and, in the absence of antiretroviral therapy, facilitate HIV shedding.
Assuntos
Genitália Feminina/microbiologia , Infecções por HIV/complicações , Herpes Genital/imunologia , Herpesvirus Humano 2/imunologia , Imunidade nas Mucosas/imunologia , Microbiota/fisiologia , Vagina/microbiologia , Adulto , Anti-Infecciosos/farmacologia , Coinfecção/virologia , Disbiose , Feminino , Herpes Genital/epidemiologia , Herpes Genital/virologia , Humanos , Interferon gama , Lactobacillus , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Muramidase , Inibidor Secretado de Peptidases Leucocitárias , Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa , Vagina/virologia , Eliminação de Partículas Virais , beta-DefensinasRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Multiple host defense mechanisms protect the female genital tract from pathogens, but the impact of sexual intercourse on defense is unknown. METHODS: As part of a hypothesis-generating study, 17 women provided cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) specimens at baseline (all had abstained from sexual intercourse, masturbation, and vaginal product use for 72 hours prior to screening), 2-6 hours and 10-14 hours after vaginal intercourse with a male condom, and 2-6 hours and 10-14 hours after vaginal intercourse without a male condom (5 visits total, including the baseline visit). Vaginal pH, concentrations of immune molecules, and antimicrobial activity at postcoital visits were compared to baseline values. RESULTS: Vaginal pH and the transforming growth factor ß1 level increased, but human beta-defensin 2 (HBD-2), HBD-3, and interleukin 8 levels decreased after unprotected sex. Median Escherichia coli inhibitory activity in CVL specimens decreased significantly from baseline at the visit 2-6 hours after unprotected sex (63% [range, -34% to 99%] vs 5% [range, -51% to 100%]; P = .02) and remained low at the visit 10-14 hours after unprotected sex (6% [range, -19% to 92%]; P = .02). Pooled human seminal plasma enhanced E. coli growth in vitro in a dose-dependent manner and, when added to CVL samples with high anti-E. coli activity, reversed the inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Unprotected vaginal sex results in a reduction in endogenous anti-E. coli activity, which may reflect, in part, enhancement of bacterial growth by seminal plasma. This finding may contribute to the risk of E. coli vaginal colonization following sexual intercourse.
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Regulação da Expressão Gênica/imunologia , Imunidade Inata/fisiologia , Imunidade nas Mucosas/fisiologia , Adulto , Preservativos , Feminino , Humanos , Concentração de Íons de Hidrogênio , Masculino , Sexo sem Proteção , Vagina/química , Vagina/metabolismo , Adulto JovemRESUMO
UNLABELLED: Subunit vaccines based on the herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) glycoprotein D (gD-2) have been the major focus of HSV-2 vaccine development for the past 2 decades. Based on the promising data generated in the guinea pig model, a formulation containing truncated gD-2, aluminum salt, and MPL (gD/AS04) advanced to clinical trials. The results of these trials, however, were unexpected, as the vaccine protected against HSV-1 infection but not against HSV-2. To address this discrepancy, we developed a Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA)-treated cotton rat Sigmodon hispidus model of HSV-2 and HSV-1 genital infection. The severity of HSV-1 genital herpes was less than that of HSV-2 genital herpes in cotton rats, and yet the model allowed for comparative evaluation of gD/AS04 immunogenicity and efficacy. Cotton rats were intramuscularly vaccinated using a prime boost strategy with gD/AS04 (Simplirix vaccine) or control vaccine formulation (hepatitis B vaccine FENDrix) and subsequently challenged intravaginally with HSV-2 or HSV-1. The gD/AS04 vaccine was immunogenic in cotton rats and induced serum IgG directed against gD-2 and serum HSV-2 neutralizing antibodies but failed to efficiently protect against HSV-2 disease or to decrease the HSV-2 viral load. However, gD/AS04 significantly reduced vaginal titers of HSV-1 and better protected animals against HSV-1 compared to HSV-2 genital disease. The latter finding is generally consistent with the clinical outcome of the Herpevac trial of Simplirix. Passive transfer of serum from gD/AS04-immunized cotton rats conferred stronger protection against HSV-1 genital disease. These findings suggest the need for alternative vaccine strategies and the identification of new correlates of protection. IMPORTANCE: In spite of the high health burden of genital herpes, there is still no effective intervention against the disease. The significant gap in knowledge on genital herpes pathogenesis has been further highlighted by the recent failure of GSK HSV-2 vaccine Simplirix (gD/AS04) to protect humans against HSV-2 and the surprising finding that the vaccine protected against HSV-1 genital herpes instead. In this study, we report that gD/AS04 has higher efficacy against HSV-1 compared to HSV-2 genital herpes in the novel DMPA-synchronized cotton rat model of HSV-1 and HSV-2 infection. The findings help explain the results of the Simplirix trial.
Assuntos
Modelos Animais de Doenças , Herpes Genital/prevenção & controle , Herpesvirus Humano 1/efeitos dos fármacos , Herpesvirus Humano 2/efeitos dos fármacos , Sigmodontinae , Proteínas do Envelope Viral/farmacologia , Vacinas Virais/farmacologia , Hidróxido de Alumínio , Compostos de Anilina , Animais , Avaliação Pré-Clínica de Medicamentos , Ensaio de Imunoadsorção Enzimática , Feminino , Injeções Intramusculares , Lipídeo A/análogos & derivados , Vacinas de Subunidades Antigênicas/administração & dosagem , Vacinas de Subunidades Antigênicas/farmacologia , Proteínas do Envelope Viral/administração & dosagem , Vacinas Virais/administração & dosagemRESUMO
RATIONALE: Insulin resistance and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) are associated with pulmonary morbidity, including asthma, but the underlying mechanisms are not well elucidated. OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether systemic inflammation underlies the association of metabolic abnormalities with pulmonary function among urban adolescents. METHODS: Th-cell responses and monocyte subsets, and their association with serum homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and HDL, and pulmonary function were quantified in 168 adolescents, including 42 obese subjects with asthma, 42 normal-weight subjects with asthma, 40 obese subjects without asthma, and 44 healthy control subjects. Th-cell responses (Th1 [CD4(+)IFNγ(+)] and Th2 [CD4(+)IL4(+)] cells) to stimulation with phytohemagglutinin, leptin, and dust mite, and classical (CD14(+)CD16(-)), resident (CD14(+)CD16(+)), and patrolling (CD14dimCD16(+)) monocytes, and their C-C chemokine receptor type-2 (CCR2) expression were quantified by flow cytometry. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Th1/Th2 ratio to all three stimuli was higher in obese subjects with asthma than normal-weight subjects with asthma and directly correlated with HOMA-IR. Classical monocytes inversely associated with Th1/Th2 ratio to phytohemagglutinin (r = -0.43; P = 0.01) and directly with Asthma Control Test score (ß = 1.09; P = 0.04), while patrolling monocytes correlated with Composite Asthma Severity Index score (ß = 1.11; P = 0.04) only among obese subjects with asthma. HDL was inversely associated with patrolling monocytes and directly associated with CCR2 expression on resident monocytes. CCR2 expression on patrolling monocytes predicted residual volume (RV), RV/TLC ratio, and FRC, after adjusting for HDL, but not after adjusting for body mass index. Association of Th1/Th2 ratio with RV, FRC, and inspiratory capacity was attenuated after adjusting for HOMA-IR. CONCLUSIONS: Th1 polarization and monocyte activation among obese subjects with asthma correlates with metabolic abnormalities. Association of monocyte activation with pulmonary function is mediated by body mass index, whereas that of Th1 polarization is mediated by insulin resistance.
Assuntos
Asma , Dislipidemias , Inflamação , Resistência à Insulina/fisiologia , Pulmão/fisiopatologia , Obesidade , Adolescente , Negro ou Afro-Americano , Asma/etnologia , Asma/imunologia , Asma/metabolismo , Índice de Massa Corporal , Estudos de Casos e Controles , Comorbidade , Citocinas/sangue , Dislipidemias/etnologia , Dislipidemias/imunologia , Dislipidemias/metabolismo , Feminino , Hispânico ou Latino , Humanos , Imunidade Celular , Incidência , Modelos Lineares , Masculino , Obesidade/etnologia , Obesidade/imunologia , Obesidade/metabolismo , Fatores de Risco , Índice de Gravidade de Doença , Saúde da População UrbanaRESUMO
OBJECTIVES: A safe and effective topical prevention strategy will likely require sustained delivery of potent antiviral drugs and a delivery system that simultaneously maximizes drug distribution and overcomes the behavioural challenges related to adherence. Activity against HIV and herpes simplex virus (HSV) would be advantageous, given the epidemiological link between the two pathogens. We hypothesize that tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (tenofovir DF), a prodrug of tenofovir, may be more potent than tenofovir and ideal for sustained intravaginal ring (IVR) delivery. METHODS: The anti-HIV and anti-HSV activity of tenofovir and tenofovir DF were assessed in cell and explant models. Cumulative tenofovir DF release and stability from polyether urethane (PEU), ethylene-co-vinyl acetate (EVA) and silicone IVRs were compared, and the activity and safety of drug released were evaluated in cervical explants and in a polarized dual-chamber model. RESULTS: Tenofovir DF inhibited HIV and HSV at ≈ 100-fold lower concentrations than tenofovir and retained activity in the presence of semen. PEU rings delivered >1 mg/day of tenofovir DF for 30 days. Pre-treatment of cervical explants with 10 µg/mL tenofovir DF or eluants from PEU minirings resulted in >90% inhibition of HIV and reduced HSV-2 yields by 2.5 log. Tenofovir DF and eluants did not prevent cell growth or polarization, or have any deleterious effects on an epithelial barrier. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the development of a PEU tenofovir DF ring, which may provide potent and sustained protection against HIV and HSV.
Assuntos
Adenina/análogos & derivados , Antivirais/farmacologia , Dispositivos Anticoncepcionais Femininos , HIV/efeitos dos fármacos , Organofosfonatos/farmacologia , Simplexvirus/efeitos dos fármacos , Adenina/farmacologia , Técnicas de Cultura de Células , Quimioprevenção/métodos , Feminino , Infecções por HIV/prevenção & controle , Herpes Genital/prevenção & controle , Humanos , Técnicas de Cultura de Órgãos , TenofovirRESUMO
Skeletal muscle hypertrophy requires the co-ordinated expression of locally acting growth factors that promote myofibre growth and concurrent adaptive changes in the microvasculature. These studies tested the hypothesis that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) expression are upregulated during the early stages of compensatory muscle growth induced by chronic functional overload (FO). Bilateral FO of the plantaris and soleus muscles was induced for 3 or 7 days in the hindlimbs of adult female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 5 per group) and compared with control (non-FO) rats. Relative muscle mass (in mg (kg body weight)(-1)) increased by 18 and 24% after 3 days and by 20 and 33% after 7 days in the plantaris and soleus muscles, respectively. No differences in HB-EGF mRNA or protein were observed in either muscle of FO rats relative to control muscles. The VEGF mRNA was similar in the soleus muscles of FO and control rats, whereas a significant elevation occurred at 3 and 7 days of FO in the plantaris muscle. However, VEGF protein expression after 3 days of FO exhibited a differential response; expression in the soleus muscle decreased 1.6-fold, whereas that in the plantaris muscle increased 1.8-fold compared with the control muscle. After 7 days of FO, VEGF protein remained elevated within the plantaris muscle, but returned to basal levels in the soleus. Robust basal HB-EGF and VEGF protein expression was consistently seen in control muscles. In all groups, immunohistochemistry for VEGF protein displayed a distinct striated expression pattern within myofibres, with considerably less labelling in extracellular spaces. Constitutive expression of HB-EGF and VEGF in control myofibres is consistent with housekeeping roles for these growth factors in skeletal muscle tissue. However, the specific patterns of VEGF expression in these muscles during FO may reflect the chronic changes in neural recruitment between muscles and the co-ordination of angiogenic and/or other hypertrophic responses.
Assuntos
Peptídeos e Proteínas de Sinalização Intercelular/biossíntese , Músculo Esquelético/metabolismo , Músculo Esquelético/patologia , Fator A de Crescimento do Endotélio Vascular/biossíntese , Animais , Feminino , Fator de Crescimento Semelhante a EGF de Ligação à Heparina , Membro Posterior/metabolismo , Hipertrofia/metabolismo , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-DawleyRESUMO
Shifts in myosin heavy chain (MHC) expression within skeletal muscle can be induced by a host of stimuli including, but not limited to, physical activity, alterations in neural activity, aging, and diet or obesity. Here, we hypothesized that both age and a long-term (2 year) high fat/high sugar diet (HFS) would induce a slow to fast MHC shift within the plantaris, soleus, and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles from rhesus monkeys. Furthermore, we tested whether supplementation with resveratrol, a naturally occurring compound that has been attributed with augmenting aerobic potential through mitochondrial proliferation, would counteract any diet-induced MHC changes by promoting a fast to slow isoform switch. In general, we found that MHC isoforms were not altered by aging during mid-life. The HFS diet had the largest impact within the soleus muscle where the greatest slow to fast isoform shifts were observed in both mRNA and protein indicators. As expected, long-term resveratrol treatment counteracted, or blunted, these diet-induced shifts within the soleus muscle. The plantaris muscle also demonstrated a fast-to-slow phenotypic response to resveratrol treatment. In conclusion, diet or resveratrol treatment impacts skeletal muscle phenotype in a muscle-specific manner and resveratrol supplementation may be one approach for promoting the fatigue-resistant MHC (type I) isoform especially if its expression is blunted as a result of a long-term high fat/sugar diet.
RESUMO
PROBLEM: High-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) is prevalent in HIV-infected women and may be associated with mucosal changes that promote HIV replication. METHOD OF STUDY: Innate immune molecules, antimicrobial activity, HIV RNA, and HPV DNA genotypes were measured in a cross-sectional study of 128 HIV-infected women categorized into HPV-16 (n = 8), other HR-HPV (n = 41), and non-HR-HPV controls (n = 79). RESULTS: Compared to controls, HR-HPV groups had higher plasma viral loads (P = 0.004), lower CD4 cells (P = 0.02), more genital tract HIV RNA (P = 0.03), greater number of different HPV types (P < 0.001), higher cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) IL-1α (P = 0.03) and human beta-defensin 2 (HBD2) (P = 0.049), and less anti-HIVB al activity (P = 0.03). HPV-16 remained significantly associated with higher HBD2 (P = 0.03), higher IL-1α (P = 0.009), and lower anti-HIVB aL activity (P = 0.03) compared to controls after adjusting for plasma viral load and CD4 T cell count. CONCLUSION: HR-HPV is associated with mucosal changes in HIV-infected women that could adversely impact genital tract health.
Assuntos
Coinfecção/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Infecções por Papillomavirus/imunologia , Adulto , Colo do Útero/imunologia , Colo do Útero/virologia , Coinfecção/virologia , DNA Viral/análise , Feminino , Genótipo , Infecções por HIV/virologia , HIV-1/genética , Humanos , Imunidade nas Mucosas , Fatores Imunológicos/imunologia , Interleucina-1alfa/imunologia , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Papillomaviridae/genética , Infecções por Papillomavirus/virologia , RNA Viral/análise , Risco , Irrigação Terapêutica , Vagina/imunologia , Vagina/virologia , Carga Viral , beta-Defensinas/imunologiaRESUMO
PROBLEM: Stability over time of systemic and mucosal immunity and their associations with bacterial vaginosis (BV) and HIV-specific parameters were assessed. METHOD OF STUDY: Immune mediators and HIV viral load in plasma and cervicovaginal lavage (CVL), E. coli inhibition, and Nugent score were measured at three semiannual visits among 94 participants in the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Mixed models identified the factors associated with immune mediators. RESULTS: There was higher E. coli inhibition and lower inflammation over time in the genital tract and systemically. BV was consistently associated with higher CVL inflammatory mediators and lower CVL E. coli inhibition. HIV-infected women with higher CD4 counts had lower systemic and genital inflammatory mediators, and genital HIV shedding was associated with higher CVL inflammatory mediators. Use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) was associated with lower plasma and CVL mediators, but higher E. coli inhibition. CONCLUSION: HIV and BV are linked to inflammation, and ART may be associated with improved vaginal health.
Assuntos
Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Escherichia coli/imunologia , Genitália Feminina/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , HIV/fisiologia , Inflamação/imunologia , Vaginose Bacteriana/imunologia , Adulto , Antirretrovirais/uso terapêutico , Processos de Crescimento Celular , Citocinas/sangue , Feminino , Seguimentos , Genitália Feminina/microbiologia , Genitália Feminina/virologia , Infecções por HIV/tratamento farmacológico , Infecções por HIV/microbiologia , Humanos , Imunidade nas Mucosas , Inflamação/microbiologia , Inflamação/virologia , Mediadores da Inflamação/sangue , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Estudos Prospectivos , Vaginose Bacteriana/virologia , Carga Viral/imunologia , Eliminação de Partículas Virais/imunologiaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Surrogate markers of HIV-1 pre-exposure prophylaxis and microbicide efficacy are needed. One potential surrogate is the antiviral activity in cervicovaginal lavage (CVL) after exposure to candidate products. We measured CVL antiviral activity in women using oral or vaginal tenofovir-based pre-exposure prophylaxis and correlated activity with drug and immune mediator levels. METHODS: Inhibitory activity against HIV-1 and herpes simplex virus (HSV)-2 and concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, interferon-γ, induced protein 10 (IP-10), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-3a, lactoferrin, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, and defensins were measured in CVL obtained from 60 women at baseline and after 6 weeks of a randomized sequence of oral and topical tenofovir. CVL tenofovir concentrations were measured by mass spectrometry. RESULTS: The number of women with CVL anti-HIV activity ≥ 90% increased significantly from 5.0% at baseline to 89.1% after daily use of 1% tenofovir gel (relative risk = 17.85, P < 0.001), but there was no increase after daily oral tenofovir. The CVL anti-HIV activity correlated with drug levels (Spearman correlation coefficient 0.64 after tenofovir gel; P < 0.001) but not with the concentrations of mucosal immune mediators. No increase in CVL anti-HSV activity was observed after either drug regimen, an observation consistent with the higher concentrations of tenofovir needed to inhibit HSV-2 infection. The CVL anti-HSV activity correlated with lactoferrin, defensins, IP-10, IL-8, and detectable levels of MIP-1α but not with drug levels. CONCLUSIONS: CVL may provide a surrogate for local but not systemic drug efficacy and a tool to better understand mucosal factors that modulate antiviral activity in genital tract secretions.
Assuntos
Adenina/análogos & derivados , Fármacos Anti-HIV/administração & dosagem , Fármacos Anti-HIV/farmacocinética , Secreções Corporais/química , Quimioprevenção/métodos , Genitália Feminina/química , Organofosfonatos/administração & dosagem , Organofosfonatos/farmacocinética , Adenina/administração & dosagem , Adenina/análise , Adenina/farmacocinética , Administração Intravaginal , Administração Oral , Adulto , Fármacos Anti-HIV/análise , Feminino , HIV-1/efeitos dos fármacos , Herpesvirus Humano 2/efeitos dos fármacos , Humanos , Espectrometria de Massas , Testes de Sensibilidade Microbiana , Organofosfonatos/análise , TenofovirRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Systemic and mucosal inflammation may play a role in HIV control. A cross-sectional comparison was conducted among women in the Women's Interagency HIV Study to explore the hypothesis that compared with HIV-uninfected participants, women with HIV, and, in particular, those with high plasma viral load (PVL) have increased levels of mucosal and systemic inflammatory mediators and impaired mucosal endogenous antimicrobial activity. METHODS: Nineteen HIV-uninfected, 40 HIV-infected on antiretroviral therapy (ART) with PVL ≤ 2600 copies/mL (low viral load) (HIV-LVL), and 19 HIV-infected on or off ART with PVL >10,000 (high viral load) (HIV-HVL) were evaluated. Immune mediators and viral RNA were quantified in plasma and cervicovaginal lavage (CVL). The CVL antimicrobial activity was also determined. RESULTS: Compared to HIV-uninfected participants, HIV-HVL women had higher levels of mucosal but not systemic proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, higher Nugent scores, and lower Escherichia coli bactericidal activity. In contrast, there were no significant differences between HIV-LVL and HIV-uninfected controls. After adjusting for PVL, HIV genital tract shedding was significantly associated with higher CVL concentrations of IL-6, IL-1ß, MIP-1α, and CCL5 (RANTES) and higher plasma concentrations of MIP-1α. High PVL was associated with higher CVL levels of IL-1ß and RANTES, as well as with higher Nugent scores, lower E. coli bactericidal activity, smoking, and lower CD4 counts; smoking and CD4 count retained statistical significance in a multivariate model. CONCLUSIONS: Further study is needed to determine if the relationship between mucosal inflammation and PVL is causal and to determine if reducing mucosal inflammation is beneficial.