From injury to full repair: nerve regeneration and functional recovery in the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris.

Spontaneous nerve regeneration in cephalopod molluscs occurs in a relative short time after injury, achieving functional recovery of lost capacity. In particular, transection of the pallial nerve in the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) determines the loss and subsequent restoration of two functions fundamental for survival, i.e. breathing and skin patterning, the latter involved in communication between animals and concealment. The phenomena occurring after lesion have been investigated in a series of previous studies, but a complete analysis of the changes taking place at the level of the axons and the effects on the animals' appearance during the whole regenerative process is still missing. Our goal was to determine the course of events following injury, from impairment to full recovery. Through imaging of the traced damaged nerves, we were able to characterize the pathways followed by fibres during regeneration and end-target re-innervation, while electrophysiology and behavioural observations highlighted the regaining of functional connections between the central brain and periphery, using the contralateral nerve in the same animal as an internal control. The final architecture of a fully regenerated pallial nerve does not exactly mirror the original structure; however, functionality returns to match the phenotype of an intact octopus with no observable impact on the behaviour of the animal. Our findings provide new important scenarios for the study of regeneration in cephalopods and highlight the octopus pallial nerve as a valuable 'model' among invertebrates.

Transcriptome-wide selection and validation of a solid set of reference genes for gene expression studies in the cephalopod mollusk Octopus vulgaris.

Octopus vulgaris is a cephalopod mollusk and an active marine predator that has been at the center of a number of studies focused on the understanding of neural and biological plasticity. Studies on the machinery involved in e.g., learning and memory, regeneration, and neuromodulation are required to shed light on the conserved and/or unique mechanisms that these animals have evolved. Analysis of gene expression is one of the most essential means to expand our understanding of biological machinery, and the selection of an appropriate set of reference genes is the prerequisite for the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Here we selected 77 candidate reference genes (RGs) from a pool of stable and relatively high-expressed transcripts identified from the full-length transcriptome of O. vulgaris, and we evaluated their expression stabilities in different tissues through geNorm, NormFinder, Bestkeeper, Delta-CT method, and RefFinder. Although various algorithms provided different assemblages of the most stable reference genes for the different kinds of tissues tested here, a comprehensive ranking revealed RGs specific to the nervous system (Ov-RNF7 and Ov-RIOK2) and Ov-EIF2A and Ov-CUL1 across all considered tissues. Furthermore, we validated RGs by assessing the expression profiles of nine target genes (Ov-Naa15, Ov-Ltv1, Ov-CG9286, Ov-EIF3M, Ov-NOB1, Ov-CSDE1, Ov-Abi2, Ov-Homer2, and Ov-Snx20) in different areas of the octopus nervous system (gastric ganglion, as control). Our study allowed us to identify the most extensive set of stable reference genes currently available for the nervous system and appendages of adult O. vulgaris.

General and species-specific recommendations for minimal requirements for the use of cephalopods in scientific research.

Here we list species-specific recommendations for housing, care and management of cephalopod molluscs employed for research purposes with the aim of contributing to the standardization of minimum requirements for establishments, care and accommodation of these animals in compliance with the principles stated in Directive 2010/63/EU. Maximizing their psychophysical welfare was our priority. General recommendations on water surface area, water depth and tank shape here reported represent the outcome of the combined action of the analysis of the available literature and an expertise-based consensus reached - under the aegis of the COST Action FA1301 - among researchers working with the most commonly used cephalopod species in Europe. Information on water supply and quality, environmental conditions, stocking density, feeding and handling are also provided. Through this work we wish to set the stage for a more fertile ground of evidence-based approaches on cephalopod laboratory maintenance, thus facilitating standardization and replicability of research outcomes across laboratories, at the same time maximizing the welfare of these animals.

Cephalopod-omics: Emerging Fields and Technologies in Cephalopod Biology.

Few animal groups can claim the level of wonder that cephalopods instill in the minds of researchers and the general public. Much of cephalopod biology, however, remains unexplored: the largest invertebrate brain, difficult husbandry conditions, and complex (meta-)genomes, among many other things, have hindered progress in addressing key questions. However, recent technological advancements in sequencing, imaging, and genetic manipulation have opened new avenues for exploring the biology of these extraordinary animals. The cephalopod molecular biology community is thus experiencing a large influx of researchers, emerging from different fields, accelerating the pace of research in this clade. In the first post-pandemic event at the Cephalopod International Advisory Council (CIAC) conference in April 2022, over 40 participants from all over the world met and discussed key challenges and perspectives for current cephalopod molecular biology and evolution. Our particular focus was on the fields of comparative and regulatory genomics, gene manipulation, single-cell transcriptomics, metagenomics, and microbial interactions. This article is a result of this joint effort, summarizing the latest insights from these emerging fields, their bottlenecks, and potential solutions. The article highlights the interdisciplinary nature of the cephalopod-omics community and provides an emphasis on continuous consolidation of efforts and collaboration in this rapidly evolving field.

Deciphering regeneration through non-model animals: A century of experiments on cephalopod mollusks and an outlook at the future.

The advent of marine stations in the last quarter of the 19th Century has given biologists the possibility of observing and experimenting upon myriad marine organisms. Among them, cephalopod mollusks have attracted great attention from the onset, thanks to their remarkable adaptability to captivity and a great number of biologically unique features including a sophisticate behavioral repertoire, remarkable body patterning capacities under direct neural control and the complexity of nervous system rivalling vertebrates. Surprisingly, the capacity to regenerate tissues and complex structures, such as appendages, albeit been known for centuries, has been understudied over the decades. Here, we will first review the limited in number, but fundamental studies on the subject published between 1920 and 1970 and discuss what they added to our knowledge of regeneration as a biological phenomenon. We will also speculate on how these relate to their epistemic and disciplinary context, setting the base for the study of regeneration in the taxon. We will then frame the peripherality of cephalopods in regeneration studies in relation with their experimental accessibility, and in comparison, with established models, either simpler (such as planarians), or more promising in terms of translation (urodeles). Last, we will explore the potential and growing relevance of cephalopods as prospective models of regeneration today, in the light of the novel opportunities provided by technological and methodological advances, to reconsider old problems and explore new ones. The recent development of cutting-edge technologies made available for cephalopods, like genome editing, is allowing for a number of important findings and opening the way toward new promising avenues. The contribution offered by cephalopods will increase our knowledge on regenerative mechanisms through cross-species comparison and will lead to a better understanding of the complex cellular and molecular machinery involved, shedding a light on the common pathways but also on the novel strategies different taxa evolved to promote regeneration of tissues and organs. Through the dialogue between biological/experimental and historical/contextual perspectives, this article will stimulate a discussion around the changing relations between availability of animal models and their specificity, technical and methodological developments and scientific trends in contemporary biology and medicine.

Imaging Arm Regeneration: Label-Free Multiphoton Microscopy to Dissect the Process in Octopus vulgaris.

Cephalopod mollusks are endowed with an impressive range of features that have captured the attention of scientists from different fields, the imaginations of artists, and the interests of the public. The ability to spontaneously regrow lost or damaged structures quickly and functionally is among one of the most notable peculiarities that cephalopods possess. Microscopical imaging techniques represent useful tools for investigating the regenerative processes in several species, from invertebrates to mammals. However, these techniques have had limited use in cephalopods mainly due to the paucity of specific and commercially available markers. In addition, the commonly used immunohistochemical staining methods provide data that are specific to the antigens studied. New microscopical methods were recently applied to vertebrates to investigate regenerative events. Among them, multiphoton microscopy appears promising. For instance, it does not depend on species-related epitopes, taking advantage of the specific characteristics of tissues and allowing for its use in a species-independent way. Here, we illustrate the results obtained by applying this label-free imaging technique to the injured arm of Octopus vulgaris, a complex structure often subject to injury in the wild. This approach allowed for the characterization of the entire tissue arm architecture (muscular layers, nerve component, connective tissues, etc.) and elements usually hardly detectable (such as vessels, hemocytes, and chromatophores). More importantly, it also provided morpho-chemical information which helped decipher the regenerative phases after damage, from healing to complete arm regrowth, thereby appearing promising for regenerative studies in cephalopods and other non-model species.

Cephalopod Behavior: From Neural Plasticity to Consciousness.

It is only in recent decades that subjective experience - or consciousness - has become a legitimate object of scientific inquiry. As such, it represents perhaps the greatest challenge facing neuroscience today. Subsumed within this challenge is the study of subjective experience in non-human animals: a particularly difficult endeavor that becomes even more so, as one crosses the great evolutionary divide between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla. Here, we explore the possibility of consciousness in one group of invertebrates: cephalopod molluscs. We believe such a review is timely, particularly considering cephalopods' impressive learning and memory abilities, rich behavioral repertoire, and the relative complexity of their nervous systems and sensory capabilities. Indeed, in some cephalopods, these abilities are so sophisticated that they are comparable to those of some higher vertebrates. Following the criteria and framework outlined for the identification of hallmarks of consciousness in non-mammalian species, here we propose that cephalopods - particularly the octopus - provide a unique test case among invertebrates for examining the properties and conditions that, at the very least, afford a basal faculty of consciousness. These include, among others: (i) discriminatory and anticipatory behaviors indicating a strong link between perception and memory recall; (ii) the presence of neural substrates representing functional analogs of thalamus and cortex; (iii) the neurophysiological dynamics resembling the functional signatures of conscious states in mammals. We highlight the current lack of evidence as well as potentially informative areas that warrant further investigation to support the view expressed here. Finally, we identify future research directions for the study of consciousness in these tantalizing animals.

Neural pathways in the pallial nerve and arm nerve cord revealed by neurobiotin backfilling in the cephalopod mollusk Octopus vulgaris.

Here, we report the findings after application of neurobiotin tracing to pallial and stellar nerves in the mantle of the cephalopod mollusk Octopus vulgaris and to the axial nerve cord in its arm. Neurobiotin backfilling is a known technique in other molluscs, but it is applied to octopus for the first time to be best of our knowledge. Different neural tracing techniques have been carried out in cephalopods to study the intricate neural connectivity of their nervous system, but mapping the nervous connections in this taxon is still incomplete, mainly due to the absence of a reliable tracing method allowing whole-mount imaging. In our experiments, neurobiotin backfilling allowed: (1) imaging of large/thick samples (larger than 2 mm) through optical clearing; (2) additional application of immunohistochemistry on the backfilled tissues, allowing identification of neural structures by coupling of a specific antibody. This work opens a series of future studies aimed to the identification of the neural diagram and connectome of octopus nervous system.

Cephalopod Tissue Regeneration: Consolidating Over a Century of Knowledge.

Regeneration, a process consisting in regrowth of damaged structures and their functional recovery, is widespread in several phyla of the animal kingdom from lower invertebrates to mammals. Among the regeneration-competent species, the actual ability to restore the full form and function of the injured tissue varies greatly, from species being able to undergo whole-body and internal organ regeneration, to instances in which this ability is limited to a few tissues. Among invertebrates, cephalopod mollusks retain the ability to regenerate several structures (i.e., muscles, nerves, or entire appendages). Here we provide an overview of more than one-hundred studies carried out over the last 160 years of research. Despite the great effort, many aspects of tissue regeneration in cephalopods, including the associated molecular and cellular machinery, remain largely unexplored. Our approach is largely descriptive and aims to provide a reference to prior work thus to facilitate future research efforts. We believe such research may lead to important discoveries and approaches that can be applied to other animal taxa including higher vertebrates, as well as other research fields such as regenerative medicine.

Nerve regeneration in the cephalopod mollusc Octopus vulgaris: label-free multiphoton microscopy as a tool for investigation.

Octopus and cephalopods are able to regenerate injured tissues. Recent advancements in the study of regeneration in cephalopods appear promising encompassing different approaches helping to decipher cellular and molecular machinery involved in the process. However, lack of specific markers to investigate degenerative/regenerative phenomena and inflammatory events occurring after damage is limiting these studies. Label-free multiphoton microscopy is applied for the first time to the transected pallial nerve of Octopus vulgaris Various optical contrast methods including coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), endogenous two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) and second harmonic generation (SHG) have been used. We detected cells and structures often not revealed with classical staining methods. CARS highlighted the involvement of haemocytes in building up scar tissue; CARS and TPEF facilitated the identification of degenerating fibres; SHG allowed visualization of fibrillary collagen, revealing the formation of a connective tissue bridge between the nerve stumps, likely involved in axon guidance. Using label-free multiphoton microscopy, we studied the regenerative events in octopus without using any other labelling techniques. These imaging methods provided extremely helpful morpho-chemical information to describe regeneration events. The techniques applied here are species-specific independent and should facilitate the comparison among various animal species.

Molecular Determinants of Cephalopod Muscles and Their Implication in Muscle Regeneration.

The ability to regenerate whole-body structures has been studied for many decades and is of particular interest for stem cell research due to its therapeutic potential. Several vertebrate and invertebrate species have been used as model systems to study pathways involved in regeneration in the past. Among invertebrates, cephalopods are considered as highly evolved organisms, which exhibit elaborate behavioral characteristics when compared to other mollusks including active predation, extraordinary manipulation, and learning abilities. These are enabled by a complex nervous system and a number of adaptations of their body plan, which were acquired over evolutionary time. Some of these novel features show similarities to structures present in vertebrates and seem to have evolved through a convergent evolutionary process. Octopus vulgaris (the common octopus) is a representative of modern cephalopods and is characterized by a sophisticated motor and sensory system as well as highly developed cognitive capabilities. Due to its phylogenetic position and its high regenerative power the octopus has become of increasing interest for studies on regenerative processes. In this paper we provide an overview over the current knowledge of cephalopod muscle types and structures and present a possible link between these characteristics and their high regenerative potential. This may help identify conserved molecular pathways underlying regeneration in invertebrate and vertebrate animal species as well as discover new leads for targeted tissue treatments in humans.

Nerve degeneration and regeneration in the cephalopod mollusc Octopus vulgaris: the case of the pallial nerve.

Regeneration is a process that restores structure and function of tissues damaged by injury or disease. In mammals complete regeneration is often unsuccessful, while most of the low phyla animals can re-grow many parts of their body after amputation. Cephalopod molluscs, and in particular Octopus vulgaris, are well known for their capacity to regenerate their arms and other body parts, including central and peripheral nervous system. To better understand the mechanism of recovery following nerve injury in this species we investigated the process of axon regrowth and nerve regeneration after complete transection of the Octopus pallial nerves. This injury induces scar formation and activates the proliferation of hemocytes which invade the lesion site. Hemocytes appear involved in debris removal and seem to produce factors that foster axon re-growth. Connective tissue is involved in driving regenerating fibers in a single direction, outlining for them a well-defined pathway. Injured axons are able to quickly re-grow thus to restoring structure and function.

Cephalopod biology and care, a COST FA1301 (CephsInAction) training school: anaesthesia and scientific procedures.

Cephalopods are the sole invertebrates included in the list of regulated species following the Directive 2010/63/EU. According to the Directive, achieving competence through adequate training is a requisite for people having a role in the different functions (article 23) as such carrying out procedures on animals, designing procedures and projects, taking care of animals, killing animals. Cephalopod Biology and Care Training Program is specifically designed to comply with the requirements of the "working document on the development of a common education and training framework to fulfil the requirements under the Directive 2010/63/EU". The training event occurred at the ICM-CSIC in Barcelona (Spain) where people coming from Europe, America and Asia were instructed on how to cope with regulations for the use of cephalopod molluscs for scientific purposes. The training encompasses discussion on the guidelines for the use and care of animals and their welfare with particular reference to procedures that may be of interest for neuroscience. Intensive discussion has been carried out during the training sessions with focus on behavioural studies and paradigms, welfare assessment, levels of severity of scientific procedures, animal care, handling, transport, individual identification and marking, substance administration, anaesthesia, analgesia and humane killing.