Bronchoscopy findings in children with congenital lung and lower airway abnormalities.

Congenital lung and lower airway abnormalities are rare, but they are an important differential diagnosis in children with respiratory diseases, especially if the disease is recurrent or does not resolve. The factors determining the time of presentation of congenital airway pathologies include the severity of narrowing, association with other lesions and the presence or absence of congenital heart disease (CHD). Bronchoscopy is required in these cases to assess the airway early after birth or when intubation and ventilation are difficult or not possible. Many of these conditions have associated abnormalities that must be diagnosed early, as this determines surgical interventions. It may be necessary to combine imaging and bronchoscopy findings in these children to determine the correct diagnosis as well as in operative management. Endoscopic interventional procedures may be needed in many of these conditions, ranging from intubation to balloon dilatations and aortopexy. This review will describe the bronchoscopic findings in children with congenital lung and lower airway abnormalities, illustrate how bronchoscopy can be used for diagnosis and highlight the role of interventional bronchoscopy in the management of these conditions.

Cryoprobe for Endoscopic Enucleation in Children with Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Effective but Not Without Danger - Case Report and Review of Literature.

INTRODUCTION: Tuberculosis (TB) in children under 15 years often results in airway compression, with bronchus intermedius (BI) being the most common site. Endoscopic enucleations can be used to remove lymph nodes and establish an airway in severe cases. Both rigid and flexible bronchoscopy are suitable, with alligator forceps being preferred for its ability to extract tissue. Recent studies have also explored cryoprobe enucleation. CASE PRESENTATION: An HIV-positive boy with persistent symptoms after 9 months of TB treatment was diagnosed based on his mother's and sister's Xpert MTB/RIF positive status. He was started on 4-drug TB treatment, but the child remained clinically symptomatic with abnormal chest X-ray and unconfirmed TB. Bronchoscopy was performed, revealing complete obstruction of BI due to caseating granulomas causing collapse of the right middle and lower lobes. Cryotherapy was used to recanalize the airway, and follow-up bronchoscopy confirmed patent BI. CONCLUSION: While cryotherapy was effective in the restoration of airway patency in this case, there is a lack of knowledge about its use in children.

Intrathoracic tuberculosis: Role of interventional bronchoscopy in diagnosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of death from a single infectious agent globally. Mortality is related to the delay in diagnosis and starting treatment. According to new guidelines it is very important to classify pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) as severe or not severe disease due to the difference in treatment duration. Bronchoscopy is the gold standard for assessing the degree of airway compression and obstruction in paediatric PTB. Paediatric bronchoscopy has evolved from a primarily diagnostic procedure to include interventional bronchoscopy for diagnostic purposes. Endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) has increased the potential of sampling mediastinal lymph nodes both for histological diagnosis and microbiological confirmation.

Complicated intrathoracic tuberculosis: Role of therapeutic interventional bronchoscopy.

In recent years bronchoscopy equipment has been improved with smaller instruments and larger size working channels. This has ensured that bronchoscopy offers both therapeutic and interventional options. As the experience of paediatric interventional pulmonologists continues to grow, more interventions are being performed. There is a scarcity of published evidence in the field of interventional bronchoscopy in paediatrics. This is even more relevant for complicated pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). Therapeutic interventional bronchoscopy procedures can be used in the management of complicated tuberculosis, including for endoscopic enucleations, closure of fistulas, dilatations of bronchial stenosis and severe haemoptysis. Endoscopic therapeutic procedures in children with complicated TB may prevent thoracotomy. If done carefully these interventional procedures have a low complication rate.

Drug concentration at the site of disease in children with pulmonary tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: Current TB treatment for children is not optimized to provide adequate drug levels in TB lesions. Dose optimization of first-line antituberculosis drugs to increase exposure at the site of disease could facilitate more optimal treatment and future treatment-shortening strategies across the disease spectrum in children with pulmonary TB. OBJECTIVES: To determine the concentrations of first-line antituberculosis drugs at the site of disease in children with intrathoracic TB. METHODS: We quantified drug concentrations in tissue samples from 13 children, median age 8.6 months, with complicated forms of pulmonary TB requiring bronchoscopy or transthoracic surgical lymph node decompression in a tertiary hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. Pharmacokinetic models were used to describe drug penetration characteristics and to simulate concentration profiles for bronchoalveolar lavage, homogenized lymph nodes, and cellular and necrotic lymph node lesions. RESULTS: Isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide showed lower penetration in most lymph node areas compared with plasma, while ethambutol accumulated in tissue. None of the drugs studied was able to reach target concentration in necrotic lesions. CONCLUSIONS: Despite similar penetration characteristics compared with adults, low plasma exposures in children led to low site of disease exposures for all drugs except for isoniazid.

Paediatric pulmonary echinococcosis: A neglected disease.

Echinococcosis is a worldwide public health problem causing considerable paediatric morbidity and mortality in endemic areas. The presentation of cystic echinococcosis (CE) varies by age. Unlike adults, where hepatic involvement is common, pulmonary CE is the dominant site in the paediatric population. Pulmonary cysts are typically first seen on chest X-ray, either as an incidental finding or following respiratory symptoms after cyst rupture or secondary infection of the cyst. In children, pulmonary cysts have a broad differential diagnosis, and a definitive diagnosis relies on the combination of imaging, serology, and histology. In countries with high infectious burdens from diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and tuberculosis (TB), the diagnosis is additionally challenging, as atypical infections are more common than in developed countries. Pulmonary CE is treated with a combination of surgery and chemotherapy.

Bartonella species as a cause of culture-negative endocarditis in South Africa.

Previous reports have highlighted the high prevalence of blood culture negative endocarditis (BCNE) in South Africa. The Tygerberg Endocarditis Cohort (TEC) study is an ongoing prospective cohort study of patients with confirmed or suspected IE presenting to Tygerberg Academic Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa. Current analysis includes patients that presented between November 2019 and August 2020. Forty four (44) patients have been included in this ongoing study. Fourteen of the 44 patients (31.8%) had BCNE. Further analysis of the patients with BCNE identified Bartonella species as the most common causative organism (n=6; 43%). Other causes included Mycoplasma species (n=2). No cause could be identified in 4 of the 44 patients (9%). Bartonella quintana was identified with PCR of valvular tissue as the causative organism in 4 of the 5 patients that underwent urgent surgery. The patients with Bartonella IE (n=6) had an average age of 39 years with equal gender distribution. The common clinical features were clubbing (n=5; 83%), anemia (n=4; 66.6%), haematuria (n=3; 50%), acute on chronic severe regurgitant lesion (n=3; 50%) and acute severe regurgitant lesion (n=2; 33.3%).The aortic valve was involved in 5 of 6 patients. During a mean follow-up period of 251 days after diagnosis, no major adverse events occurred. Bartonella-associated IE is an important cause of BCNE in the Western Cape of South Africa. Imaging findings (in patients with BCNE) of significant valvular destruction with large vegetations on the aortic valve not affected by congenital or rheumatic valve disease should raise the suspicion of Bartonella-associated IE.

Non-toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae endocarditis: A cluster of five cases.

Background: Classical toxin-mediated respiratory diphtheria has become less common because of widespread effective vaccination globally but invasive disease as a result of non-toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae is not prevented by vaccination and may result in severe disease, including infective endocarditis (IE). Objectives: To describe the outbreak and subsequent investigation of a cluster of five cases of non-toxigenic C. diphtheriae endocarditis. Method: A retrospective observational case series of five cases of non-toxigenic C. diphtheriae endocarditis identified in the rural West Coast district of the Western Cape province of South Africa between May 2021 and June 2021. Results: Non-toxigenic C. diphtheriae IE had an aggressive clinical course with high mortality in this cohort. Only one of five patients survived to hospital discharge. The surviving patient received a prompt diagnosis with early surgical intervention but still had a complicated clinical course. Notably, only one case had a pre-existing risk factor for IE, namely a prosthetic valve. Whole genome sequencing of clinical isolates confirmed that all isolates were of the same novel sequence type of non-toxigenic C. diphtheriae but despite a thorough investigation no epidemiological link was ever found between the cases. Conclusion: Non-toxigenic strains of C. diphtheriae are less well known but may be highly virulent and cause severe invasive disease. Contribution: This is the largest cluster of non-toxigenic C. diphtheriae IE ever described in South Africa and expands the body of literature on this unusual but possibly emerging infection.

Pulmonary hydatic disease presenting as solid mass with haemoptysis in a child.

A middle childhood HIV-negative female patient presented with three episodes of haemoptysis. The chest X-ray demonstrated an oval-shaped, well-circumscribed left upper lobe homogenous opacification. She did not respond to tuberculosis treatment. A left upper lobectomy was performed for a solid mass in the lung, and hydatic disease was histologically confirmed. Calcification was found in the pulmonary lesion. Pulmonary hydatic cyst rarely presents as a solid lesion with calcifications and haemoptysis.

Interventional bronchoscopy in pediatric pulmonary tuberculosis.

INTRODUCTION: Lymphobronchial tuberculosis (TB) is common in children with primary TB and enlarged lymph nodes can cause airway compression of the large airways. If not treated correctly, airway compression can result in persistent and permanent parenchymal pathology, as well as irreversible lung destruction. Bronchoscopy was originally used to collect diagnostic samples; however, its role has evolved, and it is now used as an interventional tool in the diagnosis and management of complicated airway disease. Endoscopic treatment guidelines for children with TB are scarce. AREAS COVERED: The role of interventional bronchoscopy in the diagnosis and management of complicated pulmonary TB will be discussed. This review will provide practical insights into how and when to perform interventional procedures in children with complicated TB for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This discussion incorporates current scientific evidence and refers to adult literature, as some of the interventions have only been done in adults but may have a role in children. Limitations and future perspectives will be examined. EXPERT OPINION: Pediatric pulmonary TB lends itself to endoscopic interventions as it is a disease with a good outcome if treated correctly. However, interventions must be limited to safeguard the parenchyma and prevent permanent damage.

Chronic lung disease in children due to SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia: Case series.

The reported prevalence of chronic lung disease (CLD) due to coronavirus 2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2)]) pneumonia with the severe acute respiratory syndrome in children is unknown and rarely reported in English literature. In contrast to most other respiratory viruses, children generally have less severe symptoms when infected with SARS-CoV-2. Although only a minority of children with SARS-CoV-2 infection require hospitalization, severe cases have been reported. More severe SARS-CoV-2 respiratory disease in infants has been reported in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income countries (HICs). We describe our experience of five cases of CLD in children due to SARS-CoV-2 collected between April 2020 and August 2022. We included children who had a history of a positive SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or antigen test or a positive antibody test in the serum. Three patterns of CLD related to SARS-CoV-2 were identified: (1) CLD in infants postventilation for severe pneumonia (n = 3); (2) small airway disease with bronchiolitis obliterans picture (n = 1) and (3) adolescent with adult-like post-SARS-CoV-2 disease (n = 1). Chest computerized tomography scans showed airspace disease and ground-glass opacities involving both lungs with the development of coarse interstitial markings seen in four patients, reflecting the long-term fibrotic consequences of diffuse alveolar damage that occur in children post-SARS-CoV-2 infection. Children with SARS-CoV-2 infection mostly have mild symptoms with little to no long-term sequelae, but the severe long-term respiratory disease can develop.

Tuberculous bronchial stenosis: Diagnosis and role of interventional bronchoscopy.

The reported prevalence of tuberculous bronchial stenosis in children is unknown and rarely reported in English-speaking literature. In adult patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, it varies from 40% in an autopsied series in the preantibiotic era to 10% in patients who have undergone routine bronchofibroscopy in modern times. We describe our experience of four cases of confirmed bronchial stenosis due to MTB collected between January 2000 and June 2021 in this case series descriptive study. The diagnosis of bronchial stenosis due to TB was made on flexible bronchoscopy. A TB diagnosis was made if MTB was cultured from respiratory secretions, when Ziehl-Neelsen smear or GeneXpert MTB/RIF test was positive, or if a chest radiograph revealed radiographic features typical of MTB. Bronchial stenosis due to TB is rare even if airway compression is frequently seen. Although an early diagnosis of bronchial stenosis due to TB is difficult on chest X-rays, all children in this series demonstrated parenchymal changes distal to the stenosis ranging from hyperinflation and lobar collaps to bronchiectasis. If bronchial stenosis resulting from TB disease is diagnosed early, balloon dilatation as described in this report, may be an effective and safe intervention, preventing long-term complications such as irreversible lung destruction, that may require pneumonectomy.

Modified Duke/European Society of Cardiology 2015 clinical criteria for infective endocarditis: time for an update?

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of infective endocarditis (IE) is based on the modified Duke/European Society of Cardiology (ESC) 2015 clinical criteria. The sensitivity of the criteria is unknown in South Africa, but high rates of blood culture negative endocarditis (BCNIE), coupled with a change in the clinical features of IE, may limit the sensitivity. METHODS: The Tygerberg Endocarditis Cohort study prospectively enrolled patients with IE between November 2019 and June 2021. A standardised protocol for organism detection, with management of patients by an Endocarditis Team, was employed. Patients with definite IE by pathological criteria were analysed to determine the sensitivity of the current clinical criteria. RESULTS: Eighty consecutive patients with IE were included of which 45 (56.3%) had definite IE by pathological criteria. In patients with definite IE by pathological criteria, 26/45 (57.8%) of patients were classified as definite IE by clinical criteria. BCNIE was present in 25/45 (55.6%) of patients and less than three minor clinical criteria were present in 32/45 (75.6%) of patients. The elevation of Bartonella serology to a major microbiological criterion of the modified Duke/ESC 2015 clinical criteria would increase the sensitivity (57.8% vs 77.8%; p=0.07). CONCLUSION: The sensitivity of the modified Duke/ESC 2015 clinical criteria is lower than expected in patients with IE in South Africa, primarily due to the high rates of Bartonella-associated BCNIE. The elevation of Bartonella serology to a major microbiological criterion, similar to the status of Coxiella burnetii in the current criteria, would increase the sensitivity. The majority of patients with definite IE by pathological criteria had less than three minor criteria present.

Early surgery determines prognosis in patients with infective endocarditis: outcome in patients managed by an Endocarditis Team-a prospective cohort study.

Background: Infective endocarditis (IE) in South Africa is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, despite occurring in younger patients with fewer co-morbidities. Possible contributors include the high rates of blood culture negative endocarditis, high rates of mechanical valve replacement and the lack of inter-disciplinary coordination during management. Methods: The Tygerberg Endocarditis Cohort (TEC) study prospectively enrolled patients with IE between November 2019 and April 2021. All patients were managed by an Endocarditis Team with a set protocol for organism detection and a strategy of early surgery limiting the use of prosthetic material. Results: Seventy-two consecutive patients with IE were included, with a causative organism identified in 86.1% of patients. The majority of patients had a guideline indication for surgery (n=58; 80.6%). The in-hospital mortality rate was 18%, with a 6-month mortality rate of 25.7%. Surgery was performed in 42 patients (58.3%), with prosthetic valve (PVE) replacement in 32 (76.2%), conventional repair surgery in 8 (19.1%) and mitral valve reconstruction in 2 (4.8%) of patients. Patients who underwent surgery had a significantly lower in-hospital (4.8% vs. 56.3%; P<0.01) and 6-month (4.9% vs. 75.0%; P<0.01) mortality rate as compared with patients with an indication for surgery who did not undergo surgery. Conclusions: We have observed a reduction in the 6-month mortality rate in patients with IE following the establishment of an Endocarditis Team, adhering to a set protocol for organism detection and favouring early repair or reconstruction surgery. Patients who underwent surgery had a significantly lower mortality rate than patients with an indication for surgery who did not undergo surgery. Preventable residual mortality was driven by surgical delay.

Pulmonary Echinococcus in children: A descriptive study in a LMIC.

BACKGROUND: Echinococcus granulosus is a major public health problem in lower middle-income countries (LMIC). Children are commonly diagnosed with cysts in the lungs and/or the liver. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to describe a pediatric cohort diagnosed with pulmonary Cystic Echinococcus (CE) and treated with a combination of medical and surgical therapy. METHODS: This was a retrospective study performed between July 2017 and December 2020 at Tygerberg Hospital, South Africa. Clinical, laboratory, radiological, medical, and surgery-related outcomes were reviewed. RESULTS: The cohort consisted of 35 children, 17 (49%) were male, with a mean age of 9 ± 5.4 years. The most frequently encountered presenting symptom was cough (93%) followed by fever (70%). Isolated pulmonary CE accounted for the majority of cases (74%) with left lower lobe predominance. A significant proportion of the cohort exhibited chest computed tomography (CT) characteristics consistent with complicated pulmonary CE. Eighteen (58%) children had a positive indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) test result. All children received medical treatment whilst 30 (86%) of children required surgery. Children with complicated pulmonary CE stayed a mean of 12.5 ± 6.6 days, while those with simple cysts stayed 6.8 ± 1.5 days. CONCLUSION: Isolated pulmonary CE is common in children, whereas extrapulmonary cysts are uncommon. Pulmonary CE is diagnosed using chest X-ray and, CT imaging. IHA serology has limited diagnostic utility for pulmonary CE. Combined surgery and chemotherapy remains the gold standard for treating pulmonary CE.

The role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis and management of pediatric pulmonary tuberculosis.

Bronchoscopy is useful as a diagnostic and therapeutic procedure in children with Tuberculosis (TB) disease complicated by airway obstruction. It is needed in children when surgical intervention may be required for airway compression, when drug resistance is suspected, and to rule out an alternative diagnosis for airway obstruction. Bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) should be performed when other, less invasive samples cannot be collected, or when they fail to provide useful diagnostic information. BAL specimens collected at bronchoscopy can be tested using molecular TB assays and mycobacterial culture. The aim of this review is to evaluate the role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis and management of pulmonary TB in children, and, specifically, to review the role of interventional bronchoscopy. A search of electronic databases was undertaken using the online databases PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, Google Advanced Scholar, and Web of Science to identify relevant literature. The search was limited to pediatrics, pulmonology, bronchoscopy, and pediatric pulmonary tuberculosis for all articles published in English on pediatric bronchoscopy between 2010 and 2020. Recent advances in pediatric bronchoscopy was included, as well as recent research on improving the diagnosis with the use of interventional bronchoscopy. The role of bronchoscopy in pediatric pulmonary tuberculosis has changed during the last decade, from a simple method of collecting samples for bacteriological conformation to an more sophisticate procedure. New methods are available for collecting samples, which includes the use of Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) and also better methods of bacteriological conformation. Interventions are now possible; not only to improve the diagnostic abilities of bronchoscopy but also to diagnose, manage, and follow-up upon airway-related complications. Bronchoscopy services remain limited in resource-limited countries due to the high cost of equipment.

Hydatid Disease With Pseudoaneurysm Formation of the Descending Thoracic Aorta.

Human Echinococcus disease is a zoonosis that primarily affects the liver and lungs. We report a rare case of hydatid disease in the posterior mediastinum with pseudoaneurysm formation of the descending thoracic aorta and erosion of thoracic vertebral bodies. The patient was surgically treated with removal of multiple daughter cysts and primary repair of the aorta.

Causes of infective endocarditis in the Western Cape, South Africa: a prospective cohort study using a set protocol for organism detection and central decision making by an endocarditis team.

BACKGROUND: Blood culture negative infective endocarditis (BCNIE) poses both a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. High rates of BCNIE reported in South Africa have been attributed to antibiotic use prior to blood culture sampling. OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of a systematic approach to organism detection and identify the causes of infective endocarditis (IE), in particular causes of BCNIE. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: The Tygerberg Endocarditis Cohort study prospectively enrolled patients with IE between November 2019 and February 2021. A set protocol for organism detection with management of patients by an endocarditis team was employed. This prospective cohort was compared with a retrospective cohort of patients with IE admitted between January 2017 and December 2018. RESULTS: One hundred and forty patients with IE were included, with 75 and 65 patients in the retrospective and prospective cohorts, respectively. Baseline demographic characteristics were similar with a mean age of 39.6 years and male predominance (male sex=67.1%). The rate of BCNIE was lower in the prospective group (28/65 or 43.1%) compared with the retrospective group (47/75 or 62.7%; p=0.039). The BCNIE in-hospital mortality rate in the retrospective cohort was 23.4% compared with 14.2% in the prospective cohort (p=0.35). A cause was identified (including non-culture techniques) in 86.2% of patients in the prospective cohort, with Staphylococcus aureus (26.2%), Bartonella species (20%) and the viridans streptococci (15.3%) being most common. CONCLUSION: The introduction of a set protocol for organism detection, managed by an endocarditis team, has identified Staphylococcusaureus as the most common cause of IE and identified non-culturable organisms, in particular Bartonella quintana, as an important cause of BCNIE. A reduction in in-hospital mortality in patients with BCNIE was observed, but did not reach statistical significance.

Diagnostic utility of bronchoalveolar lavage in children with complicated intrathoracic tuberculosis.

INTRODUCTION: Bronchoscopy can be a useful tool in children with pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) with severe disease potentially requiring intervention or in the face of diagnostic dilemmas. The aim of this study was to determine the value of Xpert MTB/RIF assay (Xpert) on bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples in children with complicated PTB. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of children with clinically diagnosed PTB, who underwent routine bronchoscopy over a 5-year period at a large referral hospital. BAL and other respiratory samples were tested by microscopy, culture, and Xpert. We explored whether clinical, radiographic and bronchoscopy findings, and duration of antituberculosis treatment were associated with bacteriological confirmation. RESULTS: One hundred and twelve out of one hundred and forty-six (76.7%) children (median age 16 months) were on antituberculosis treatment for a median of 10 days at the time of bronchoscopy. Overall, bacteriological confirmation was achieved in 115 (78.7%), with 101 (69.2%) detected on BAL. Of those bacteriologically confirmed on BAL, 61.4% were positive by both Xpert and culture, 34.7% only by Xpert, and 3.9% only by culture. Sensitivity and specificity of Xpert compared with culture on BAL samples for children not on antituberculosis treatment were 94.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 71.3, 99.8) and 68.7% (95% CI: 41.3, 89.0), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In children undergoing bronchoscopy for complicated PTB, Xpert testing of BAL had a high diagnostic yield in children already on antituberculosis treatment. Bronchoscopy should be considered if noninvasive respiratory specimens fail to confirm complicated TB.