More than Measurement Error: Discrepant Reporting of Contraceptive Use and the Role of Wives' and Husbands' Educational Attainment.

This paper describes discrepancies in spouses' reports of the use of female-controlled, nonvisible contraceptive methods using data from rural Nepal that were collected monthly from both spouses of 822 couples between 2008 and 2016. We find that spouses in about half of couples provided discrepant reports during the period of observation, and these discrepancies occurred in 14 percent of the months of observation. We then investigate these discrepant reports as possible indicators of incomplete transparency regarding reproductive choices and examine whether they are associated with wives' education and spouses' relative education levels. We find, first, that wife's educational attainment was negatively associated with discrepant reports of contraceptive use, independent of spouses' relative educational attainment. At the same time, these models suggest that educational differences between husbands and wives were associated with discrepant reports. Couples in which wives had more education than their husbands faced greater odds of discrepant reports of contraceptive use, relative to couples in which spouses had similar education. Among couples in which husbands had more education than wives odds of wife-only reporting were lower, relative to couples with similar levels of education. These findings offer important new insights into spousal dynamics that may influence transparency regarding contraceptive use.

Family composition and marital dissolution in rural Nepal, 1945-2008.

The presence, number, sex, and age composition of children within families can have important influences on couples' marital outcomes. Children are valued across settings, but their value in settings where there is an absence of formalized social security is distinctive. This paper explores the influences of childlessness, and different number, age, and sex compositions of children, on the odds of marital dissolution among couples in rural Nepal. Results reveal that childless couples face significantly higher odds of dissolution than couples with at least one child, and each additional child-up to three children-reduces couples' odds of dissolution. Furthermore, having a child aged under two reduces couples' odds of marital dissolution, but interactions reveal that this age effect only holds at parity one. Surprisingly, despite a history of son preference in this setting, there is no evidence that children's within-parity sex composition is associated with the odds of marital dissolution.

Predictors of Marital Dissolution During a Period of Rapid Social Change: Evidence From South Asia.

Few studies have examined the causes and consequences of marital dissolution in non-Western settings. This article explores the fundamental factors that may predict marital dissolution in a mainly agrarian setting in South Asia, where collectivism has historically been valued over individualism and where life is centered on the family. Using event history analyses with retrospective life history data from the Chitwan Valley Family Study conducted in rural Nepal, I explore the possible predictors of marital dissolution. Results suggest that couples in which wives married at older ages and chose their spouse in conjunction with their parents face lower risk of marital dissolution, while wives' work increases the risk. Moreover, couples married for longer durations and couples who have more children face lower risks of marital dissolution. The influences of many of these factors have changed over the last few decades, pointing toward the important role of changing social context on marital trajectories.

The influence of wives' and husbands' fertility preferences on progression to a third birth in Nepal, 1997-2009.

As couples across the globe increasingly exercise conscious control over their reproduction, both spouses' family-size preferences have the opportunity to influence their fertility. Using couple-level measures of rural Nepalese spouses' family-size preferences and more than a decade of monthly panel data collected subsequently on fertility outcomes, we investigate how both spouses' preferences influence progression to a third birth in a country where the widely professed ideal family size is two children. Contrary to expectations based on women's relative disadvantage, we find that it is wives' preferences that drive couples' progression to a third birth. We find also that the influence of wives' preferences is not explained by contraceptive use but that this influence is moderated by couple communication about family planning. Wives' preferences drive progression to a third birth among couples who had discussed how many children to have.

Response of sensitive behaviors to frequent measurement.

We study the influence of frequent survey measurement on behavior. Widespread access to the Internet has made important breakthroughs in frequent measurement possible-potentially revolutionizing social science measurement of processes that change quickly over time. One key concern about using such frequent measurement is that it may influence the behavior being studied. We investigate this possibility using both a population-based experiment with random assignment to participation in a weekly journal for twelve months (versus no journal) and a large-scale, population-based, journal-keeping study with weekly measurement for 30 months. Results reveal few of the measured behaviors are correlated with assignment to frequent measurement. Theoretical reasoning regarding the likely behavioral response to frequent measurement correctly predicts domains most vulnerable to this possibility. Overall, however, we found little evidence of behavioral response to frequent measurement.

Exposure to Adversity and its Impact on Later Life Cognitive, Mental, and Physical Health.

Objectives: We aimed to assess later-life health responses to childhood and lifetime adversity in a cohort of rural, Black South African adults. Methods: We performed ordinary least squares regression using two waves of data from Health and Aging in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa (HAALSI) to estimate a decline in cognitive, mental, and physical health over approximately 3 years. Our analytic sample consisted of 1,993 women and 1,496 men. Results: Associations between several types of adversity and health outcomes point to declines in health. At the same time, many adverse experiences are associated with improvements in cognitive, mental, and physical health in later life. The direction of the association varied by type of exposure, health outcome, and gender. Conclusion: In populations exposed to many adversities during life, specific adverse experiences may sometimes be associated with greater improvements (and not just greater decline) in health in later life. Further research is needed to unpack the mechanisms at play in these populations.

In-Person Social Interactions and Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Role of Household Size and Virtual Social Contact Among Midlife and Older Black South African Adults.

OBJECTIVES: The current study investigates how physical distancing during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was associated with increased anxiety among a cohort of midlife older Black South African adults and the extent to which household size and virtual social contact modify this association for men and women. METHODS: We analyze data from a phone survey conducted from July 2021 to March 2022 as part of Health and Aging in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa (n = 2,080). We employ logistic regression to estimate the association between changes in in-person social interactions and anxiety symptoms and examine whether the association is modified by household size and changes in virtual social contact. We perform analyses separately for women and men. RESULTS: Declines in in-person social interactions were associated with increased anxiety for women and men (odds ratios [OR] = 2.52, p < .001). For women only, declines were greater for those living in larger households (OR = 1.11, p = .032). Declines were buffered by increased virtual social contact for both women (OR = 0.55, p = .025) and men (OR = 0.45, p = .019). DISCUSSION: Although the anxiety symptoms of women and men were similarly affected by declines in in-person social interaction, the modifying influence of household size is unique to women, likely due to gender-specific social roles. For women, living in larger households may mean greater caregiving burden, exacerbating the detrimental association between physical distancing and anxiety. On the other hand, both women and men may have used virtual means to connect with friends and family living outside their homes, buffering against increased anxiety.

The Effect of Parents' Attitudes on Sons' Marriage Timing.

Theories of family stability and change, demographic processes, and social psychological influences on behavior all posit that parental attitudes and beliefs are a key influence on their children's behavior. Though we have evidence of these effects in Western populations, there is little information regarding this social mechanism in non-Western contexts. Furthermore, comparisons of mothers' and fathers' independent roles in these crucial intergenerational mechanisms are rare. This paper uses measures from a ten-year family panel study featuring independent interviews with both mothers and fathers in rural Nepal to investigate these issues. We test the association of specific attitudes, rather than broad ideational domains, about childbearing and old-age care with sons' subsequent marriage behavior. Our results indicate that both mothers' and fathers' attitudes have important and independent influences on sons' marriage behavior. Simultaneous study of both parents' attitudes reveals that gender-specific parenting contexts can shape the relationship between parental attitudes and children's behaviors. This crucial mechanism of intergenerational continuity and change is strong in this non-Western setting, with substantial implications for studies of intergenerational influences on behavior in all settings.

Marital experiences and depressive symptoms among older adults in rural South Africa.

This paper advances the understanding of how marital transitions may influence mental health by investigating these associations among a population of rural, Black South Africans aged 40+ that was directly impacted by apartheid. Using two waves of data from 4,176 men and women in Health and Aging in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa (HAALSI), we investigated associations between marital experiences and depressive symptoms, by gender, and explored whether economic resources is a moderator of these associations. We found that experiencing a marital dissolution was associated with more depressive symptoms than remaining married for both men and women. We also found that men, but not women, report greater depressive symptoms if they remained separated/divorced, remained widowed, or remained never married between waves. We found no evidence that a decline in wealth moderated the impact of marital dissolution on depressive symptoms for women or men. These findings suggest that the documented benefits of marriage for mental health, and differences by gender in those benefits, may extend to older, rural South Africans, despite the unique experiences of this population.

Associations between cognitive function and marital status in the United States, South Africa, Mexico, and China.

We investigate the associations between marital status and cognitive well-being among adults aged 50 and older across four settings: the United States, rural South Africa, Mexico, and China. Using a standardized measure of immediate word recall, we assess whether people in each non-married status have worse cognitive function than their married counterparts, and the extent to which these associations vary across settings. We theorize that the practices around marriage in each setting, as well as the social stigma attached to marital dissolution, will reveal differing associations between marital status and cognition. Results suggest that, among women, being in a widowed marital status is associated with lower cognitive function in each setting except Mexico (after accounting for education and employment), while being separated/divorced or never married is associated with lower cognitive function only among women in the U.S. and Mexico. Among men, being widowed is associated with lower cognitive function relative to being married in each setting except South Africa (after accounting for education and employment), and being never married is associated with lower cognitive function in the U.S. and China (but not in South Africa or Mexico, after accounting for education and employment). Men also face relatively lower cognitive function if separated/divorced in the U.S. and South Africa. We discuss possible reasons for these associations across settings.

The double-edged role of accessed status on health and well-being among middle- and older-age adults in rural South Africa: The HAALSI study.

Background: Social capital theory conceptualizes accessed status (the socioeconomic status of social contacts) as interpersonal resources that generate positive health returns, while social cost theory suggests that accessed status can harm health due to the sociopsychological costs of generating and maintaining these relationships. Evidence for both hypotheses has been observed in higher-income countries, but not in more resource-constrained settings.We therefore investigated whether the dual functions of accessed status on health may be patterned by its interaction with network structure and functions among an older population in rural South Africa. Method: We used baseline survey data from the HAALSI study ("Health and Aging in Africa: a Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa") among 4,379 adults aged 40 and older. We examined the direct effect of accessed status (measured as network members' literacy), as well as its interaction with network size and instrumental support, on life satisfaction and self-rated health. Results: In models without interactions, accessed status was positively associated with life satisfaction but not self-rated health. Higher accessed status was positively associated with both outcomes for those with fewer personal contacts. Interaction effects were further patterned by gender, being most health-protective for women with a smaller network and most health-damaging for men with a larger network. Conclusions: Supporting social capital theory, we find that having higher accessed status is associated with better health and well-being for older adults in a setting with limited formal support resources. However, the explanatory power of both theories appears to depending on other key factors, such as gender and network size, highlighting the importance of contextualizing theories in practice.

How Religion, Social Class, and Race Intersect in the Shaping of Young Women's Understandings of Sex, Reproduction, and Contraception.

Using a complex religion framework, this study examines how and why three dimensions of religiosity-biblical literalism, personal religiosity, and religious service attendance-are related to young women's reproductive and contraceptive knowledge differently by social class and race. We triangulate the analysis of survey data from the Relationship Dynamics and Social Life study (RDSL) and semi-structured interview data from the National Study of Youth and Religion (NSYR) to identify and explain patterns. From the quantitative data, we find that all three dimensions of religiosity link to young women's understandings of sex, reproduction, and contraception in unique ways according to parental education and racial identity. There is a lack of knowledge about female reproductive biology for young women of higher SES with conservative Christian beliefs (regardless of race), but personal religiosity and religious service attendance are related to increased contraceptive knowledge for young black women and decreased knowledge for young white women. From the qualitative data, we find that class and race differences in the meaning of religion and how it informs sexual behavior help explain results from the quantitative data. Our results demonstrate the importance of taking a complex religion approach to studying religion and sex-related outcomes.

Grandchild Caregiving and Cognitive Health Among Grandparents in Rural South Africa.

Objectives: We investigate how caregiving for grandchildren is associated with cognitive function among rural South Africans, and whether the association differs by gender. We further investigate whether measures of physical activity or social engagement mediate this association. Methods: Data were from interviews with 3668 Black, South African grandparents in the "Health and Aging in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa" study, conducted between 2014 and 2015. Results: We find that caregiving grandparents have better cognitive function than non-caregiving grandparents, and this association does not differ by grandparent gender. Although grandchild caregiving is associated with physical activity and social engagement measures, and some of these measures are associated with cognitive function, we do not find conclusive evidence of mediation. Discussion: Providing care for grandchildren may stimulate cognitive function for both grandmothers and grandfathers. Neither physical activity nor social engagement explains the association between caregiving and cognitive function.

Support in times of need: How depressive symptoms can impact receipt of social support among aging adults in rural South Africa.

The relationship between mental health and receipt of social support is not well understood in low- and middle-income countries. In this paper, we focus on a cohort of older adults (40-plus) in rural South Africa to unpack associations between mental health and receipt of social support, and the extent to which marital status modifies these associations. We use baseline data from a population-based study, Health and Aging in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH Community in South Africa (HAALSI), conducted between 2014 and 2015. Our results suggest that men and women who report depressive symptoms are less likely to receive social support: women are less likely to receive emotional and financial support, and men are less likely to receive physical and financial support. Both men and women who are married or partnered are more likely to receive social support than their non-married counterparts. The association between depressive symptomology and receipt of social support differs for women who are separated/divorced and for men who are widowed. Specifically, the association between having depressive symptoms and receiving physical or financial support is more positive for separated/divorced women than their married/cohabiting counterparts; for men, the association between having depressive symptoms and receiving physical support is more positive for widowed men than their married/cohabiting counterparts. Our findings speak to the complicated associations between social support, marriage and mental health in later life and the different experiences that men and women may have.

Receipt of Emotional Support among Rural South African Adults.

As the world undergoes rapid ageing, informal support from friends and relatives is becoming especially important among older adults in middle and low income countries, where formalized social protections may be limited. We use new data from a cohort of adults ages 40 and older in rural South Africa to explore how receipt of emotional support differs by gender and marital status. Our findings suggest that women are more likely to get emotional support than men and have more sources of support. Moreover, women are more likely to get emotional support from relatives, whereas men are more likely to get support from friends. In regard to marital status, married people are more likely to get emotional support and have more sources of support than people who are not married. However, separated/divorced and widowed people are more likely to get emotional support from relatives and have more sources of non-spousal support than married people. These findings point toward gaps in informal systems of support, and the particular importance of considering men and unmarried (especially never married) people when designing policies to offer social protections to older populations.

Spatial and Temporal Dimensions of Migration on Union Dissolution.

This investigation uses data from Nicaragua to evaluate the temporal and geographic influences of migration on union dissolution. We investigate the impact of three migration types: internal (within Nicaragua), South-South international (to Costa Rica), and South-North international (to the United States). We perform event history analyses using data from the Latin American Migration Project (LAMP) to test whether longer migrations (time) and migration to international and more distant locations (place), and the combination of these two factors, is associated with increased rate of union dissolution among return migrants. Results suggest that total migration duration and internal migration (relative to non-migration) are associated with an increased rate of union dissolution. Moreover, a longer duration of migration to any one of the three destinations increases this rate. In order to understand the familial risks associated with migration, then, we must consider both the time and place associated with the migration event.

The influence of neighbors' family size preference on progression to high parity births in rural Nepal.

Large families can have a negative impact on the health and well-being of women, children, and their communities. Seventy-three percent of the individuals in our rural Nepalese sample report that two children is their ideal number, yet about half of the married women continue childbearing after their second child. Using longitudinal data from the Chitwan Valley Family Study, we explore the influence of women's and neighbors' family size preferences on women's progression to high parity births, comparing this influence across two cohorts. We find that neighbors' family size preferences influence women's fertility, that older cohorts of women are more influenced by their neighbors' preferences than are younger cohorts of women, and that the influence of neighbors' preferences is independent of women's own preferences.

A micro-level event-centered approach to investigating armed conflict and population responses.

In this article, we construct and test a micro-level event-centered approach to the study of armed conflict and behavioral responses in the general population. Event-centered approaches have been successfully used in the macro-political study of armed conflict but have not yet been adopted in micro-behavioral studies. The micro-level event-centered approach that we advocate here includes decomposition of a conflict into discrete political and violent events, examination of the mechanisms through which they affect behavior, and consideration of differential risks within the population. We focus on two mechanisms: instability and threat of harm. We test this approach empirically in the context of the recent decade-long armed conflict in Nepal, using detailed measurements of conflict-related events and a longitudinal study of first migration, first marriage, and first contraceptive use. Results demonstrate that different conflict-related events independently shaped migration, marriage, and childbearing and that they can simultaneously influence behaviors in opposing directions. We find that violent events increased migration, but political events slowed migration. Both violent and political events increased marriage and contraceptive use net of migration. Overall, this micro-level event-centered approach yields a significant advance for the study of how armed conflict affects civilian behavioral responses.