Numerical Simulation of Permeability Change in Wellbore Cement Fractures after Geomechanical Stress and Geochemical Reactions Using X-ray Computed Tomography Imaging.

X-ray microtomography (XMT) imaging combined with three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling technique was used to study the effect of geochemical and geomechanical processes on fracture permeability in composite Portland cement-basalt caprock core samples. The effect of fluid density and viscosity and two different pressure gradient conditions on fracture permeability was numerically studied by using fluids with varying density and viscosity and simulating two different pressure gradient conditions. After the application of geomechanical stress but before CO2-reaction, CFD revealed fluid flow increase, which resulted in increased fracture permeability. After CO2-reaction, XMT images displayed preferential precipitation of calcium carbonate within the fractures in the cement matrix and less precipitation in fractures located at the cement-basalt interface. CFD estimated changes in flow profile and differences in absolute values of flow velocity due to different pressure gradients. CFD was able to highlight the profound effect of fluid viscosity on velocity profile and fracture permeability. This study demonstrates the applicability of XMT imaging and CFD as powerful tools for characterizing the hydraulic properties of fractures in a number of applications like geologic carbon sequestration and storage, hydraulic fracturing for shale gas production, and enhanced geothermal systems.

Comparison of realistic and idealized breathing patterns in computational models of airflow and vapor dosimetry in the rodent upper respiratory tract.

CONTEXT: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of airflows coupled with physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling of respiratory tissue doses of airborne materials have traditionally used either steady-state inhalation or a sinusoidal approximation of the breathing cycle for airflow simulations despite their differences from normal breathing patterns. OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the impact of realistic breathing patterns, including sniffing, on predicted nasal tissue concentrations of a reactive vapor that targets the nose in rats as a case study. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Whole-body plethysmography measurements from a free-breathing rat were used to produce profiles of normal breathing, sniffing and combinations of both as flow inputs to CFD/PBPK simulations of acetaldehyde exposure. RESULTS: For the normal measured ventilation profile, modest reductions in time- and tissue depth-dependent areas under the curve (AUC) acetaldehyde concentrations were predicted in the wet squamous, respiratory and transitional epithelium along the main airflow path, while corresponding increases were predicted in the olfactory epithelium, especially the most distal regions of the ethmoid turbinates, versus the idealized profile. The higher amplitude/frequency sniffing profile produced greater AUC increases over the idealized profile in the olfactory epithelium, especially in the posterior region. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in tissue AUCs at known lesion-forming regions for acetaldehyde between normal and idealized profiles were minimal, suggesting that sinusoidal profiles may be used for this chemical and exposure concentration. However, depending upon the chemical, exposure system and concentration and the time spent sniffing, the use of realistic breathing profiles, including sniffing, could become an important modulator for local tissue dose predictions.

Development of a Zealand white rabbit deposition model to study inhalation anthrax.

Despite using rabbits in several inhalation exposure experiments to study diseases such as anthrax, there is a lack of understanding regarding deposition characteristics and fate of inhaled particles (bio-aerosols and viruses) in the respiratory tracts of rabbits. Such information allows dosimetric extrapolation to humans to inform human outcomes. The lung geometry of the New Zealand white rabbit (referred to simply as rabbits throughout the article) was constructed using recently acquired scanned images of the conducting airways of rabbits and available information on its acinar region. In addition, functional relationships were developed for the lung and breathing parameters of rabbits as a function of body weight. The lung geometry and breathing parameters were used to extend the existing deposition model for humans and several other species to rabbits. Evaluation of the deposition model for rabbits was made by comparing predictions with available measurements in the literature. Deposition predictions in the lungs of rabbits indicated smaller deposition fractions compared to those found in humans across various particle diameter ranges. The application of the deposition model for rabbits was demonstrated by extrapolating deposition predictions in rabbits to find equivalent human exposure concentrations assuming the same dose-response relationship between the two species. Human equivalent exposure concentration levels were found to be much smaller than those for rabbits.

Respiratory tract lung geometry and dosimetry model for male Sprague-Dawley rats.

While inhalation toxicological studies of various compounds have been conducted using a number of different strains of rats, mechanistic dosimetry models have only had tracheobronchial (TB) structural data for Long-Evans rats, detailed morphometric data on the alveolar region of Sprague-Dawley rats and limited alveolar data on other strains. Based upon CT imaging data for two male Sprague-Dawley rats, a 15-generation, symmetric typical path model was developed for the TB region. Literature data for the alveolar region of Sprague-Dawley rats were analyzed to develop an eight-generation model, and the two regions were joined to provide a complete lower respiratory tract model for Sprague-Dawley rats. The resulting lung model was used to examine particle deposition in Sprague-Dawley rats and to compare these results with predicted deposition in Long-Evans rats. Relationships of various physiologic variables and lung volumes were either developed in this study or extracted from the literature to provide the necessary input data for examining particle deposition. While the lengths, diameters and branching angles of the TB airways differed between the two Sprague-Dawley rats, the predicted deposition patterns in the three major respiratory tract regions were very similar. Between Sprague-Dawley and Long-Evans rats, significant differences in TB and alveolar predicted deposition fractions were observed over a wide range of particle sizes, with TB deposition fractions being up to 3- to 4-fold greater in Sprague-Dawley rats and alveolar deposition being significantly greater in Long-Evans rats. Thus, strain-specific lung geometry models should be used for particle deposition calculations and interspecies dose comparisons.

In situ casting and imaging of the rat airway tree for accurate 3D reconstruction.

The use of anatomically accurate, animal-specific airway geometries is important for understanding and modeling the physiology of the respiratory system. One approach for acquiring detailed airway architecture is to create a bronchial cast of the conducting airways. However, typical casting procedures either do not faithfully preserve the in vivo branching angles or produce rigid casts that when removed for imaging are fragile and thus easily damaged. We address these problems by creating an in situ bronchial cast of the conducting airways in rats that can be subsequently imaged in situ using three-dimensional micro-CT imaging. We also demonstrate that deformations in airway branch angles resulting from the casting procedure are small, and that these angle deformations can be reversed through an interactive adjustment of the segmented cast geometry. Animal work was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

Pharmacokinetics, Safety and Efficacy of Intravenous Vedolizumab in Paediatric Patients with Ulcerative Colitis or Crohn's Disease: Results from the Phase 2 HUBBLE Study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: To date, there are no systematic pharmacokinetic [PK] data on vedolizumab in paediatric inflammatory bowel disease [IBD]. We report results from HUBBLE, a dose-ranging, phase 2 trial evaluating the PK, safety and efficacy of intravenous vedolizumab for paediatric IBD. METHODS: Enrolled patients [aged 2-17 years] with moderate to severe ulcerative colitis [UC] or Crohn's disease [CD] and body weight ≥10 kg were randomized by weight to receive low- or high-dose vedolizumab [≥30 kg, 150 or 300 mg; <30 kg, 100 or 200 mg] on Day 1 and Weeks 2, 6 and 14. Week 14 assessments included PK, clinical response and exposure-response relationship. Safety and immunogenicity were assessed. RESULTS: Randomized patients weighing ≥30 kg [UC, n = 25; CD, n = 24] and <30 kg [UC, n = 19; CD, n = 21] had a baseline mean [standard deviation] age of 13.5 [2.5] and 7.6 [3.2] years, respectively. In almost all indication and weight groups, area under the concentration curve and average concentration increased ~2-fold from low to high dose; the trough concentration was higher in each high-dose arm compared with the low-dose arms. At Week 14, clinical response occurred in 40.0-69.2% of patients with UC and 33.3-63.6% with CD in both weight groups. Clinical responders with UC generally had higher trough concentration vs non-responders, while this trend was not observed in CD. Fourteen per cent [12/88] of patients had treatment-related adverse events and 6.8% [6/88] had anti-drug antibodies. CONCLUSIONS: Vedolizumab exposure increased in an approximate dose-proportional manner. No clear dose-response relationship was observed in this limited cohort. No new safety signals were identified.

Bispecific antibodies: A guide to model informed drug discovery and development.

Affinity (KD) optimization of monoclonal antibodies is one of the factors that impacts the stoichiometric binding and the corresponding efficacy of a drug. This impacts the dose and the dosing regimen, making the optimum KD a critical component of drug discovery and development. Its importance is further enhanced for bispecific antibodies, where affinity of the drug needs to be optimized with respect to two targets. Mathematical modeling can have critical impact on lead compound optimization. Here we build on previous work of using mathematical models to facilitate lead compound selection, expanding analysis from two membrane bound targets to soluble targets as well. Our analysis reveals the importance of three factors for lead compound optimization: drug affinity to both targets, target turnover rates, and target distribution throughout the body. We describe a method that leverages this information to help make early stage decisions on whether to optimize affinity, and if so, which arm of the bispecific should be optimized. We apply the proposed approach to a variety of scenarios and illustrate the ability to make improved decisions in each case. We integrate results to develop a bispecific antibody KD optimization guide that can be used to improve resource allocation for lead compound selection, accelerating advancement of better compounds. We conclude with a discussion of possible ways to assess the necessary levels of target engagement for affecting disease as part of an integrative approach for model-informed drug discovery and development.

New Approach Methodology for Assessing Inhalation Risks of a Contact Respiratory Cytotoxicant: Computational Fluid Dynamics-Based Aerosol Dosimetry Modeling for Cross-Species and In Vitro Comparisons.

Regulatory agencies are considering alternative approaches to assessing inhalation toxicity that utilizes in vitro studies with human cells and in silico modeling in lieu of additional animal studies. In support of this goal, computational fluid-particle dynamics models were developed to estimate site-specific deposition of inhaled aerosols containing the fungicide, chlorothalonil, in the rat and human for comparisons to prior rat inhalation studies and new human in vitro studies. Under bioassay conditions, the deposition was predicted to be greatest at the front of the rat nose followed by the anterior transitional epithelium and larynx corresponding to regions most sensitive to local contact irritation and cytotoxicity. For humans, simulations of aerosol deposition covering potential occupational or residential exposures (1-50 µm diameter) were conducted using nasal and oral breathing. Aerosols in the 1-5 µm range readily penetrated the deep region of the human lung following both oral and nasal breathing. Under actual use conditions (aerosol formulations >10 µm), the majority of deposited doses were in the upper conducting airways. Beyond the nose or mouth, the greatest deposition in the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi was predicted for aerosols in the 10-20 µm size range. Only small amounts of aerosols >20 µm penetrated past the pharyngeal region. Using the ICRP clearance model, local retained tissue dose metrics including maximal concentrations and areas under the curve were calculated for each airway region following repeated occupational exposures. These results are directly comparable with benchmark doses from in vitro toxicity studies in human cells leading to estimated human equivalent concentrations that reduce the reliance on animals for risk assessments.

Quantitative Systems Pharmacology Approaches for Immuno-Oncology: Adding Virtual Patients to the Development Paradigm.

Drug development in oncology commonly exploits the tools of molecular biology to gain therapeutic benefit through reprograming of cellular responses. In immuno-oncology (IO) the aim is to direct the patient's own immune system to fight cancer. After remarkable successes of antibodies targeting PD1/PD-L1 and CTLA4 receptors in targeted patient populations, the focus of further development has shifted toward combination therapies. However, the current drug-development approach of exploiting a vast number of possible combination targets and dosing regimens has proven to be challenging and is arguably inefficient. In particular, the unprecedented number of clinical trials testing different combinations may no longer be sustainable by the population of available patients. Further development in IO requires a step change in selection and validation of candidate therapies to decrease development attrition rate and limit the number of clinical trials. Quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP) proposes to tackle this challenge through mechanistic modeling and simulation. Compounds' pharmacokinetics, target binding, and mechanisms of action as well as existing knowledge on the underlying tumor and immune system biology are described by quantitative, dynamic models aiming to predict clinical results for novel combinations. Here, we review the current QSP approaches, the legacy of mathematical models available to quantitative clinical pharmacologists describing interaction between tumor and immune system, and the recent development of IO QSP platform models. We argue that QSP and virtual patients can be integrated as a new tool in existing IO drug development approaches to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the search for novel combination therapies.

Ventilation Modulation and Nanoparticle Deposition in Respiratory and Olfactory Regions of Rabbit Nose.

The rabbit nose's ability to filter out inhaled agents is directly related to its defense to infectious diseases. The knowledge of the rabbit nose anatomy is essential to appreciate its functions in ventilation regulation, aerosol filtration and olfaction. The objective of this study is to numerically simulate the inhalation and deposition of nanoparticles in a New Zealand white (NZW) rabbit nose model with an emphasis on the structure-function relation under normal and sniffing conditions. To simulate the sniffing scenario, the original nose model was modified to generate new models with enlarged nostrils or vestibules based on video images of a rabbit sniffing. Ventilations into the maxilloturbinate and olfactory region were quantified with varying nostril openings, and deposition rates of inhaled aerosols ranging from 0.5 nm to 1000 nm were characterized on the total, sub-regional and local basis. Results showed that particles which deposited in the olfactory region came from a specific area in the nostril. The spiral vestibule played an essential role in regulating flow resistance and flow partition into different parts of the nose. Increased olfactory doses were persistently predicted in models with expanded nostrils or vestibule. Particles in the range of 5-50 nm are more sensitive to the geometry variation than other nanoparticles. It was also observed that exhaled aerosols occupy only the central region of the nostril, which minimized the mixing with the aerosols close to the nostril wall, and potentially allowed the undisruptive sampling of odorants. The results of this study shed new light on the ventilation regulation and inhalation dosimetry in the rabbit nose, which can be further implemented to studies of infectious diseases and immunology in rabbits.

An integrated experimental-computational approach for predicting virulence in New Zealand white rabbits and humans following inhalation exposure to Bacillus anthracis spores.

Inhalation of Bacillus anthracis spores can lead to an anthrax infection that can be fatal. Previously published mathematical models have extrapolated kinetic rates associated with bacterial growth in New Zealand White (NZW) rabbits to humans, but to date, actual measurements of the underlying processes associated with anthrax virulence between species have not been conducted. To address this knowledge gap, we have quantified species-specific rate constants associated with germination, proliferation, and immune cell inactivation of B. anthracis Sterne using an in vitro test platform that includes primary lung epithelial and immune cells. The generated data was then used to develop a physiologically based biokinetic model (PBBK) which quantitatively compares bacterial growth and mean time to death under lethal conditions in rabbits and humans. Simulations based upon our in vitro data and previously published in vivo data from rabbits indicate that disease progression is likely to be faster in humans than in NZW rabbits under comparable total deposited dose conditions. With the computational framework established, PBBK parameters can now be refined using experimental data for lethal B. anthracis strains (e.g. Ames) under identical conditions in future studies. The PBBK model can also be linked to existing aerosol dosimetry models that account for species-specific differences in aerosol deposition patterns to further improve the human health risk assessment of inhalation anthrax.

Guiding principles for mechanistic modeling of bispecific antibodies.

System based pharmacokinetic (PK) models can be used to study and predict the distribution of antibody based drugs into target tissues and assess the pharmacobinding (PB) of the drug to the target and the subsequent pharmacodynamic (PD) changes. In the absence of relevant PD readouts, compounded in cases of novel mechanisms, one can rely on binding between the drug and the target, computed as target occupancy (TO), as a relevant biomarker. This approach assumes that at maximum TO across the dosing interval, the drug-target interaction must demonstrate the intended pharmacology. Such analysis can help set laboratory objectives for protein engineers and chemists and guide them to the appropriate design and binding affinity of the molecule. Analysis of mechanistic models to guide affinity optimization against soluble and membrane-bound targets has been done for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) (Tiwari et al., The AAPS Journal, 2017). However, comparable understanding of bispecific antibodies (BsAb; drugs with two targets, which are either soluble, membrane-bound, or a combination of the two) is still lacking. We propose to extend the work done by Tiwari et al. (2017) to BsAb. We focus on describing a generic BsAb with two membrane-bound targets, and explore the impact of various parameters on the TO of the BsAb to each target. Performed analysis can guide the optimization of dissociation constant (KD) of the BsAb, and can also help in identifying druggable targets. Proposed model can be modified and tailored to specific biologics as needed.

Characteristics of airflow in a CT-based ovine lung: a numerical study.

The transient airflow in a rigid, asymmetric monopodial sheep (ovine) tracheobronchial tree of up to 13 generations was investigated numerically. The lung geometry was segmented and reconstructed from computed-tomographic (CT) images. The flow characteristics in the image-based sheep airway were compared with the flow patterns produced by a Weibel-based model at prime locations. Boundary conditions were prescribed 1) a velocity profile from experimental data at the inlet and 2) zero pressure at the bronchial outlets. A mesh convergence study was carried out to establish confidence in the model predictions, and gross left-right ventilation was validated against experimental xenon wash-in-washout data. Detailed flow characteristics were investigated at three points in the breathing cycle: 1) peak inhalation, 2) peak exhalation, and 3) transition. Simulation results revealed fundamental differences between airflow in monopodial and bipodial branching airways. Compared with idealized bipodial flow, the flow in the sheep airway was asymmetric and highly vortical, especially during exhalation and transition. The streak lines during the inhalation phase suggest that the left and right upper lobes are ventilated by airflow in the peripheral region of the trachea. This work may contribute to understanding the interplay between structure and function in the lung.

Application of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging for the development and validation of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models of the rat respiratory system.

Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models of the respiratory system provide a quantitative basis for extrapolating the localized dose of inhaled materials and improving human health risk assessments based upon inhalation studies conducted in animals. Nevertheless, model development and validation have historically been tedious and time-consuming tasks. In recognition of this, we previously reported on the use of proton (1H) magnetic resonance (MR) imaging for visualizing nasal-sinus passages in the rat, and for speeding computational mesh generation. Here, the generation and refinement of meshes for rat nasal airways are described in more detail and simulated airflows are presented. To extend the CFD models to the complete respiratory tract, three-dimensional (3D) 1H MR imaging of rat pulmonary casts was also utilized to construct pulmonary airway meshes using procedures developed for the nasal airways. Furthermore, the feasibility of validating CFD predictions with MR was tested by imaging hyperpolarized 3He gas at physiological flow rates in a straight pipe with a diameter comparable to the rat trachea. Results from these diverse studies highlight the potential utility of MR imaging not only for speeding CFD development but also possibly for model validation.

Anatomical Details of the Rabbit Nasal Passages and Their Implications in Breathing, Air Conditioning, and Olfaction.

The rabbit is commonly used as a laboratory animal for inhalation toxicology tests and detail knowledge of the rabbit airway morphometry is needed for outcome analysis or theoretical modeling. The objective of this study is to quantify the morphometric dimension of the nasal airway of a New Zealand white rabbit and to relate the morphology and functions through analytical and computational methods. Images of high-resolution MRI scans of the rabbit were processed to measure the axial distribution of the cross-sectional areas, perimeter, and complexity level. The lateral recess, which has functions other than respiration or olfaction, was isolated from the nasal airway and its dimension was quantified separately. A low Reynolds number turbulence model was implemented to simulate the airflow, heat transfer, vapor transport, and wall shear stress. Results of this study provide detailed morphological information of the rabbit that can be used in the studies of olfaction, inhalation toxicology, drug delivery, and physiology-based pharmacokinetics modeling. For the first time, we reported a spiral nasal vestibule that splits into three paths leading to the dorsal meatus, maxilloturbinate, and ventral meatus, respectively. Both non-dimensional functional analysis and CFD simulations suggested that the airflow in the rabbit nose is laminar and the unsteady effect is only significantly during sniffing. Due to the large surface-to-volume ratio, the maxilloturbinate is highly effective in warming and moistening the inhaled air to body conditions. The unique anatomical structure and respiratory airflow pattern may have important implications for designing new odorant detectors or electronic noses. Anat Rec, 299:853-868, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

CFD modeling and image analysis of exhaled aerosols due to a growing bronchial tumor: towards non-invasive diagnosis and treatment of respiratory obstructive diseases.

Diagnosis and prognosis of tumorigenesis are generally performed with CT, PET, or biopsy. Such methods are accurate, but have the limitations of high cost and posing additional health risks to patients. In this study, we introduce an alternative computer aided diagnostic tool that can locate malignant sites caused by tumorigenesis in a non-invasive and low-cost way. Our hypothesis is that exhaled aerosol distribution is unique to lung structure and is sensitive to airway structure variations. With appropriate approaches, it is possible to locate the disease site, determine the disease severity, and subsequently formulate a targeted drug delivery plan to treat the disease. This study numerically evaluated the feasibility of the proposed breath test in an image-based lung model with varying pathological stages of a bronchial squamous tumor. Large eddy simulations and a Lagrangian tracking approach were used to model respiratory airflows and aerosol dynamics. Respirations of tracer aerosols of 1 µm at a flow rate of 20 L/min were simulated, with the distributions of exhaled aerosols recorded on a filter at the mouth exit. Aerosol patterns were quantified with multiple analytical techniques such as concentration disparity, spatial scanning and fractal analysis. We demonstrated that a growing bronchial tumor induced notable variations in both the airflow and exhaled aerosol distribution. These variations became more apparent with increasing tumor severity. The exhaled aerosols exhibited distinctive pattern parameters such as spatial probability, fractal dimension, and multifractal spectrum. Results of this study show that morphometric measures of the exhaled aerosol pattern can be used to detect and monitor the pathological states of respiratory diseases in the upper airway. The proposed breath test also has the potential to locate the site of the disease, which is critical in developing a personalized, site-specific drug delivery protocol.

Comparative Risks of Aldehyde Constituents in Cigarette Smoke Using Transient Computational Fluid Dynamics/Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models of the Rat and Human Respiratory Tracts.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling is well suited for addressing species-specific anatomy and physiology in calculating respiratory tissue exposures to inhaled materials. In this study, we overcame prior CFD model limitations to demonstrate the importance of realistic, transient breathing patterns for predicting site-specific tissue dose. Specifically, extended airway CFD models of the rat and human were coupled with airway region-specific physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) tissue models to describe the kinetics of 3 reactive constituents of cigarette smoke: acrolein, acetaldehyde and formaldehyde. Simulations of aldehyde no-observed-adverse-effect levels for nasal toxicity in the rat were conducted until breath-by-breath tissue concentration profiles reached steady state. Human oral breathing simulations were conducted using representative aldehyde yields from cigarette smoke, measured puff ventilation profiles and numbers of cigarettes smoked per day. As with prior steady-state CFD/PBPK simulations, the anterior respiratory nasal epithelial tissues received the greatest initial uptake rates for each aldehyde in the rat. However, integrated time- and tissue depth-dependent area under the curve (AUC) concentrations were typically greater in the anterior dorsal olfactory epithelium using the more realistic transient breathing profiles. For human simulations, oral and laryngeal tissues received the highest local tissue dose with greater penetration to pulmonary tissues than predicted in the rat. Based upon lifetime average daily dose comparisons of tissue hot-spot AUCs (top 2.5% of surface area-normalized AUCs in each region) and numbers of cigarettes smoked/day, the order of concern for human exposures was acrolein > formaldehyde > acetaldehyde even though acetaldehyde yields were 10-fold greater than formaldehyde and acrolein.

Phase-contrast MRI and CFD modeling of apparent ³He gas flow in rat pulmonary airways.

Phase-contrast (PC) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with hyperpolarized ³He is potentially useful for developing and testing patient-specific models of pulmonary airflow. One challenge, however, is that PC-MRI provides apparent values of local ³He velocity that not only depend on actual airflow but also on gas diffusion. This not only blurs laminar flow patterns in narrow airways but also introduces anomalous airflow structure that reflects gas-wall interactions. Here, both effects are predicted in a live rat using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and for the first time, simulated patterns of apparent ³He gas velocity are compared with in vivo PC-MRI. Results show (1) that correlations (R²) between measured and simulated airflow patterns increase from 0.23 to 0.79 simply by accounting for apparent ³He transport, and (2) that remaining differences are mainly due to uncertain airway segmentation and partial volume effects stemming from relatively coarse MRI resolution. Higher-fidelity testing of pulmonary airflow predictions should therefore be possible with future imaging improvements.

Comparative computational modeling of airflows and vapor dosimetry in the respiratory tracts of rat, monkey, and human.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are useful for predicting site-specific dosimetry of airborne materials in the respiratory tract and elucidating the importance of species differences in anatomy, physiology, and breathing patterns. We improved the imaging and model development methods to the point where CFD models for the rat, monkey, and human now encompass airways from the nose or mouth to the lung. A total of 1272, 2172, and 135 pulmonary airways representing 17±7, 19±9, or 9±2 airway generations were included in the rat, monkey and human models, respectively. A CFD/physiologically based pharmacokinetic model previously developed for acrolein was adapted for these anatomically correct extended airway models. Model parameters were obtained from the literature or measured directly. Airflow and acrolein uptake patterns were determined under steady-state inhalation conditions to provide direct comparisons with prior data and nasal-only simulations. Results confirmed that regional uptake was sensitive to airway geometry, airflow rates, acrolein concentrations, air:tissue partition coefficients, tissue thickness, and the maximum rate of metabolism. Nasal extraction efficiencies were predicted to be greatest in the rat, followed by the monkey, and then the human. For both nasal and oral breathing modes in humans, higher uptake rates were predicted for lower tracheobronchial tissues than either the rat or monkey. These extended airway models provide a unique foundation for comparing material transport and site-specific tissue uptake across a significantly greater range of conducting airways in the rat, monkey, and human than prior CFD models.

A multiscale bidirectional coupling framework.

The lung is geometrically articulated across multiple scales from the trachea to the alveoli. A major computational challenge is to tightly link ODEs that describe lower scales to 3D finite element or finite volume models of airway mechanics using iterative communication between scales. In this study, we developed a novel multiscale computational framework for bidirectionally coupling 3D CFD models and systems of lower order ODEs. To validate the coupling framework, a four and eight generation Weibel lung model was constructed. For the coupled CFD-ODE simulations, the lung models were truncated at different generations and a RL circuit represented the truncated portion. The flow characteristics from the coupled models were compared to untruncated full 3D CFD models at peak inhalation and peak exhalation. Results showed that at no time or simulation was the difference in mass flux and/or pressure at a given location between uncoupled and coupled models was greater than 2.43%. The flow characteristics at prime locations for the coupled models showed good agreement to uncoupled models. Remarkably, due to reuse of the Krylov subspace, the cost of the ODE coupling is not much greater than uncoupled full 3D-CFD computations with simple prescribed pressure values at the outlets.