Suppression and acceptance in unipolar depression: Short-term and long-term effects on emotional responding.

OBJECTIVES: Transdiagnostic treatments increasingly include emotion regulation training focused on use of emotional suppression and acceptance. Despite the frequent use of these treatments in depression, little is known about the effects of these strategies in this population. DESIGN: An experimental study. METHODS: Eighty Veterans with unipolar depression participated in a study examining effects of these strategies on emotional responding (subjective, behavioural, and physiological). Physiological measures included: heart rate (HR), respiration (Resp), skin conductance (SC), and corrugator electromyography. On Day 1, participants were randomised to one of three conditions (acceptance, suppression, or control) and underwent an autobiographical sad mood induction. On Day 2, participants underwent a similar mood induction one week later. RESULTS: The suppression group demonstrated reduced physiological reactivity (Resp and SC) on Day 1. However, the suppression group reported decreased positive affect on Day 2. CONCLUSIONS: Results support short-term effectiveness and longer term costs from suppression use among depressed individuals. Findings may inform application of transdiagnostic emotion regulation treatments and suggest suppression functions differently in depressed versus other clinical populations.

Acquisition of morphine conditioned place preference increases the dendritic complexity of nucleus accumbens core neurons.

Contexts associated with opioid reward trigger craving and relapse in opioid addiction. Effects of reward-context associative learning on nucleus accumbens (NAc) dendritic morphology were studied using morphine conditioned place preference (CPP). Morphine-conditioned mice received saline and morphine 10 mg/kg subcutaneous (s.c.) on alternate days. Saline-conditioned mice received saline s.c. each day. Morphine-conditioned and saline-conditioned groups received injections immediately before each of eight daily conditioning sessions. Morphine homecage controls had no CPP training, but received saline and morphine in the homecage concomitantly with the morphine-conditioned group. Morphine conditioning produced greater place preference than saline conditioning. Mice were sacrificed 1 day after CPP expression. Dendritic changes were studied using Golgi-Cox staining and digital tracing of NAc core and shell neurons. In the NAc core, morphine homecage administration increased spine density, while morphine conditioning increased dendritic complexity, as defined by increased dendritic count, length and intersections. Place preference positively correlated with dendritic length and intersections in the NAc core. The core may mediate reward consolidation and determine how context-related signals from the shell lead to motor behavior. The combination of drug and conditioning in the morphine-conditioned group produced unique morphological effects different from the effects of drug or conditioning procedures by themselves. An additional study found no differences in neuron morphology between saline-conditioned mice, trained as described earlier, and mice that were not conditioned, but received saline in the homecage. The unique effect of morphine reward learning on NAc core dendrites reflects a brain substrate that could be targeted for therapeutic intervention in addiction.

Association between smoking and heart rate variability among individuals with depression.

BACKGROUND: Both depression and smoking have been independently associated with lower heart rate variability (HRV), suggesting dysregulation of cardiac autonomic function. However, no studies have systematically explored the effects of smoking on HRV among depressed patients. PURPOSE: This study examined differences in HRV based on smoking status among depressed individuals. METHODS: Electrophysiological data were examined among 77 adult outpatients without a history of myocardial infarction, who met criteria for major depressive disorder or dysthymia. Frequency domain [low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), LF/HF ratio, respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)] parameters of HRV, and heart rate and inter-beat interval (IBI) data were compared between depressed smokers (n = 34) and depressed nonsmokers (n = 44). RESULTS: After controlling for covariates, depressed smokers, compared to depressed nonsmokers, displayed significantly lower LF, HF, and RSA. CONCLUSIONS: Among depressed patients, smoking is associated with significantly lower HRV, indicating dysregulated autonomic modulation of the heart.

Separate and combined effects of very low nicotine cigarettes and nicotine replacement in smokers with schizophrenia and controls.

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of smoking among people with schizophrenia in the United States is about 3 times that of the general population. Novel approaches are needed to reduce rates of smoking-related morbidity and mortality among these smokers. METHODS: This study used a within-subjects design to investigate the separate and combined effects of sensorimotor replacement for smoking (very low nicotine content [VLNC] cigarettes vs. no cigarettes) and transdermal nicotine replacement (42 mg nicotine [NIC] vs. placebo [PLA] patches) in smokers with schizophrenia (SS; n = 30) and control smokers without psychiatric illness (CS; n = 26). Each session contained a 5-hr controlled administration period in which participants underwent the following conditions, in counterbalanced order: VLNC + NIC, VLNC + PLA, no cigarettes + NIC, no cigarettes + PLA, usual-brand cigarettes + no patches. Next, participants completed measures of cigarette craving, nicotine withdrawal, smoking habit withdrawal, and cigarette subjective effects, followed by a 90-min period of ad libitum usual-brand smoking. RESULTS: Smoking VLNC cigarettes during the controlled administration periods reduced cigarette craving, nicotine withdrawal symptoms, habit withdrawal symptoms, and usual-brand smoking in SS and CS relative to the no cigarette conditions. VLNC cigarettes were well accepted by both groups and did not affect psychiatric symptom levels in SS. Transdermal nicotine significantly reduced cigarette craving but did not affect usual-brand smoking. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that reducing the nicotine content of cigarettes to nonaddictive levels may be a promising approach for reducing nicotine dependence among people with schizophrenia.

Neuroplasticity of the extended amygdala in opioid withdrawal and prolonged opioid abstinence.

Opioid use disorder is characterized by excessive use of opioids, inability to control its use, a withdrawal syndrome upon discontinuation of opioids, and long-term likelihood of relapse. The behavioral stages of opioid addiction correspond with affective experiences that characterize the opponent process view of motivation. In this framework, active involvement is accompanied by positive affective experiences which gives rise to "reward craving," whereas the opponent process, abstinence, is associated with the negative affective experiences that produce "relief craving." Relief craving develops along with a hypersensitization to the negatively reinforcing aspects of withdrawal during abstinence from opioids. These negative affective experiences are hypothesized to stem from neuroadaptations to a network of affective processing called the "extended amygdala." This negative valence network includes the three core structures of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and the nucleus accumbens shell (NAc shell), in addition to major inputs from the basolateral amygdala (BLA). To better understand the major components of this system, we have reviewed their functions, inputs and outputs, along with the associated neural plasticity in animal models of opioid withdrawal. These models demonstrate the somatic, motivational, affective, and learning related models of opioid withdrawal and abstinence. Neuroadaptations in these stress and motivational systems are accompanied by negative affective and aversive experiences that commonly give rise to relapse. CeA neuroplasticity accounts for many of the aversive and fear-related effects of opioid withdrawal via glutamatergic plasticity and changes to corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)-containing neurons. Neuroadaptations in BNST pre-and post-synaptic GABA-containing neurons, as well as their noradrenergic modulation, may be responsible for a variety of aversive affective experiences and maladaptive behaviors. Opioid withdrawal yields a hypodopaminergic and amotivational state and results in neuroadaptive increases in excitability of the NAc shell, both of which are associated with increased vulnerability to relapse. Finally, BLA transmission to hippocampal and cortical regions impacts the perception of conditioned aversive effects of opioid withdrawal by higher executive systems. The prevention or reversal of these varied neuroadaptations in the extended amygdala during opioid withdrawal could lead to promising new interventions for this life-threatening condition.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in animal models of PTSD: Relationships between behavioral models, neural regions, and cellular maladaptation.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a trauma-related condition that produces distressing fear memory intrusions, avoidance behaviors, hyperarousal, stress responses, insomnia and other symptoms. This review of rodent models of PTSD examines trauma effects on fear-related learning, cognition, and avoidance, emotional and arousal behaviors and on mitochondrial dysfunction in relevant neural pathways. The review focuses on research that includes four elements: consensus PTSD rodent models, behavioral phenotyping, mitochondrial dysfunction within key neural regions. This approach allows for the integration of behavioral, neural and cellular findings in PTSD models. The PTSD models reviewed include fear conditioning, predator/social stress, chronic restraint stress, single prolonged stress, social isolation, chronic unpredictable stress and early life stress. These models produce a variety of PTSD-related behaviors that include associative and non-associative fear- and stress-related responses, hyperarousal, avoidance behaviors, cognitive disturbances, social withdrawal, compulsive behaviors, anhedonia-, anxiety- and depression-related behaviors. Neural regions included fear- and stress-related regions of the prefrontal cortex, hippocampal, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and hypothalamus. PTSD models produced mitochondrial dysfunction that includes dysregulation of oxidative phosphorylation and other metabolic pathways including ß-oxidation of fatty acids and the tricarboxylic acid pathway. These models generated neural reactive oxygen species that damage DNA, proteins, and lipids. Trauma models further altered mitochondrial structure and replication and affected neuroinflammatory responses, signal transduction and apoptosis. Antidepressant medications used for the treatment of PTSD reversed stress-induced changes in some PTSD-like behaviors and many elements of brain mitochondrial dysfunction. Future studies can develop PTSD models which are ecologically valid and result in a broader manifestation of PTSD-related behaviors as it is clinically defined. This review highlights mitochondrial mechanisms associated with PTSD-like behaviors that have been produced in an array of consensus PTSD models and identifies putative circuit-based targets for more effective treatment for this debilitating disorder.

Estrous cycle dependent expression of oxycodone conditioned reward in rats.

Oxycodone is one of the most widely prescribed and misused opioid painkillers in the United States. Evidence suggests that biological sex and hormonal status can impact drug reward in humans and rodents, but the extent to which these factors can influence the rewarding effects of oxycodone is unclear. The purpose of this study was to utilize place conditioning to determine the effects of sex and female hormonal status on the expression of oxycodone conditioned reward in rats. Gonadally intact adult Sprague-Dawley male and female rats were used to test: (1) whether both sexes express conditioned reward to oxycodone at similar doses, (2) the impact of conditioning session length on oxycodone conditioned reward expression in both sexes, and (3) the influence of female estrous cycle stage on oxycodone conditioned reward expression. Both sexes expressed conditioned reward at the same doses of oxycodone. Increasing the length of conditioning sessions did not reveal an effect of sex and resulted in lower magnitude conditioned reward expression. Importantly however, female stage of estrous cycle significantly influenced oxycodone conditioned reward expression. These results suggest that female hormonal status can impact the rewarding effects of opioids and thus have important implications for prescription opioid treatment practices.

Disturbances in fear extinction learning after mild traumatic brain injury in mice are accompanied by alterations in dendritic plasticity in the medial prefrontal cortex and basolateral nucleus of the amygdala.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have emerged as the signature injuries of the U.S. veterans who served in Iraq and Afghanistan, and frequently co-occur in both military and civilian populations. To better understand how fear learning and underlying neural systems might be altered after mTBI, we examined the acquisition of cued fear conditioning and its extinction along with brain morphology and dendritic plasticity in a mouse model of mTBI. To induce mTBI in adult male C57BL/6J mice, a lateral fluid percussive injury (LFP 1.7) was produced using a fluid pulse of 1.7 atmosphere force to the right parietal lobe. Behavior in LFP 1.7 mice was compared to behavior in mice from two separate control groups: mice subjected to craniotomy without LFP injury (Sham) and mice that did not undergo surgery (Unoperated). Following behavioral testing, neural endpoints (dendritic structural plasticity and neuronal volume) were assessed in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA), which plays a critical sensory role in fear learning, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), responsible for executive functions and inhibition of fear behaviors. No gross motor abnormalities or increased anxiety-like behaviors were observed in LFP or Sham mice after surgery compared to Unoperated mice. We found that all mice acquired fear behavior, assessed as conditioned freezing to auditory cue in a single session of 6 trials, and acquisition was similar across treatment groups. Using a linear mixed effects analysis, we showed that fear behavior decreased overall over 6 days of extinction training with no effect of treatment group across extinction days. However, a significant interaction was demonstrated between the treatment groups during within-session freezing behavior (5 trials per day) during extinction training. Specifically, freezing behavior increased across within-session extinction trials in LFP 1.7 mice, whereas freezing behavior in control groups did not change on extinction test days, reflecting a dissociation between within-trial and between-trial fear extinction. Additionally, LFP mice demonstrated bilateral increases in dendritic spine density in the BLA and decreases in dendritic complexity in the PFC. The translational implications are that individuals with TBI undergoing fear extinction therapy may demonstrate within-session aberrant learning that could be targeted for more effective treatment interventions.

The relationship between reward-based learning and nicotine dependence in smokers with schizophrenia.

Cigarette smoking rates remain remarkably high in schizophrenia relative to smoking in other psychiatric groups. Impairments in the reward system may be related to elevated rates of nicotine dependence and lower cessation rates in this psychiatric group. Smokers with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder (SWS; n=15; M(age)=54.87, S.D.=6.51, 100% male) and a non-psychiatric control group of smokers (NCL; n=16; M(age)=50.38, S.D.=11.52; 93.8% male) were administered a computerized signal detection task to measure reward-based learning. Performance on the signal detection task was assessed by response bias, discriminability, reaction time, and hit rate. Clinician-assessed and self-reported measures of smoking and psychiatric symptoms were completed. SWS exhibited similar patterns of reward-based learning compared to control smokers. However, decreased reward-based learning was associated with increased levels of nicotine dependence in SWS, but not among control smokers. Nicotine withdrawal and urge to smoke were correlated with anhedonia within the SWS group. Among SWS, reduced reward responsiveness and increased anhedonia were associated with and may contribute to greater co-occurring nicotine dependence. These findings emphasize the importance of targeting reward system functioning in smoking cessation treatment for individuals with schizophrenia.

Translational approaches to influence sleep and arousal.

Sleep disorders are widespread in society and are prevalent in military personnel and in Veterans. Disturbances of sleep and arousal mechanisms are common in neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and affective disorders, traumatic brain injury, dementia, and substance use disorders. Sleep disturbances exacerbate suicidal ideation, a major concern for Veterans and in the general population. These disturbances impair quality of life, affect interpersonal relationships, reduce work productivity, exacerbate clinical features of other disorders, and impair recovery. Thus, approaches to improve sleep and modulate arousal are needed. Basic science research on the brain circuitry controlling sleep and arousal led to the recent approval of new drugs targeting the orexin/hypocretin and histamine systems, complementing existing drugs which affect GABAA receptors and monoaminergic systems. Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques to modulate sleep and arousal are safe and show potential but require further development to be widely applicable. Invasive viral vector and deep brain stimulation approaches are also in their infancy but may be used to modulate sleep and arousal in severe neurological and psychiatric conditions. Behavioral, pharmacological, non-invasive brain stimulation and cell-specific invasive approaches covered here suggest the potential to selectively influence arousal, sleep initiation, sleep maintenance or sleep-stage specific phenomena such as sleep spindles or slow wave activity. These manipulations can positively impact the treatment of a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders by promoting the restorative effects of sleep on memory consolidation, clearance of toxic metabolites, metabolism, and immune function and by decreasing hyperarousal.

Sleep-wake and arousal dysfunctions in post-traumatic stress disorder: Role of orexin systems.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a trauma-related condition that produces distressing fear memory intrusions, avoidance behaviors, hyperarousal/startle, stress responses and insomnia. This review focuses on the importance of the orexin neural system as a novel mechanism related to the pathophysiology of PTSD. Orexinergic neurons originate in the lateral hypothalamus and project widely to key neurotransmitter systems, autonomic neurons, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and fear-related neural circuits. After trauma or stress, the basolateral amygdala (BLA) transmits sensory information to the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and in turn to the hypothalamus and other subcortical and brainstem regions to promote fear and threat behaviors. Orexin receptors have a prominent role in this circuit as fear conditioned orexin receptor knockout mice show decreased fear expression while dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) inhibit fear acquisition and expression. Orexin activation of an infralimbic-amygdala circuit impedes fear extinction while DORA treatments enhance it. Increased orexin signaling to the amygdalo-cortical-hippocampal circuit promotes avoidance behaviors. Orexin has an important role in activating sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and HPA axis stress responses. Blockade of orexin receptors reduces fear-conditioned startle responses. In PTSD models, individuals demonstrate sleep disturbances such as increased sleep latency and more transitions to wakefulness. Increased orexin activity impairs sleep by promoting wakefulness and reducing total sleep time while DORA treatments enhance sleep onset and maintenance. The orexinergic neural system provides important mechanisms for understanding multiple PTSD behaviors and provides new medication targets to treat this often persistent and debilitating illness.

Opioid-induced structural and functional plasticity of medium-spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens.

Opioid Use Disorder (OUD) is a chronic relapsing clinical condition with tremendous morbidity and mortality that frequently persists, despite treatment, due to an individual's underlying psychological, neurobiological, and genetic vulnerabilities. Evidence suggests that these vulnerabilities may have neurochemical, cellular, and molecular bases. Key neuroplastic events within the mesocorticolimbic system that emerge through chronic exposure to opioids may have a determinative influence on behavioral symptoms associated with OUD. In particular, structural and functional alterations in the dendritic spines of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and its dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are believed to facilitate these behavioral sequelae. Additionally, glutamatergic neurons from the prefrontal cortex, the basolateral amygdala, the hippocampus, and the thalamus project to these same MSNs, providing an enriched target for synaptic plasticity. Here, we review literature related to neuroadaptations in NAc MSNs from dopaminergic and glutamatergic pathways in OUD. We also describe new findings related to transcriptional, epigenetic, and molecular mechanisms in MSN plasticity in the different stages of OUD.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, and their comorbid conditions: role in pathogenesis and treatment.

As US military service members return from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan with elevated rates of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), attention has been increasingly focused on TBI/PTSD comorbidity, its neurobiological mechanisms, and novel and effective treatment approaches. TBI and PTSD, and their comorbid conditions, present with a spectrum of common clinical features such as sleep disturbance, depression, anxiety, irritability, difficulty in concentrating, fatigue, suicidality, chronic pain, and alterations in arousal. These TBI and PTSD disorders are also thought to be characterized by overlapping neural mechanisms. Both conditions are associated with changes in hippocampal, prefrontal cortical, and limbic region function because of alterations in synaptogenesis, dendritic remodeling, and neurogenesis. Neural changes in TBI and PTSD result from pathophysiological disturbances in metabolic, cytotoxic, inflammatory, and apoptic processes, amongst other mechanisms. Neurotrophins have well-established actions in regulating cell growth and survival, differentiation, apoptosis, and cytoskeleton restructuring. A body of research indicates that dysregulation of neural brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is found in conditions of TBI and PTSD. Induction of BDNF and activation of its intracellular receptors can produce neural regeneration, reconnection, and dendritic sprouting, and can improve synaptic efficacy. In this review, we consider treatment approaches that enhance BDNF-related signaling and have the potential to restore neural connectivity. Such treatment approaches could facilitate neuroplastic changes that lead to adaptive neural repair and reverse cognitive and emotional deficits in both TBI and PTSD.

Pathophysiological Bases of Comorbidity: Traumatic Brain Injury and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

The high rates of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnoses encountered in recent years by the United States Veterans Affairs Healthcare System have increased public awareness and research investigation into these conditions. In this review, we analyze the neural mechanisms underlying the TBI/PTSD comorbidity. TBI and PTSD present with common neuropsychiatric symptoms including anxiety, irritability, insomnia, personality changes, and memory problems, and this overlap complicates diagnostic differentiation. Interestingly, both TBI and PTSD can be produced by overlapping pathophysiological changes that disrupt neural connections termed the "connectome." The neural disruptions shared by PTSD and TBI and the comorbid condition include asymmetrical white matter tract abnormalities and gray matter changes in the basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. These neural circuitry dysfunctions result in behavioral changes that include executive function and memory impairments, fear retention, fear extinction deficiencies, and other disturbances. Pathophysiological etiologies can be identified using experimental models of TBI, such as fluid percussion or blast injuries, and for PTSD, using models of fear conditioning, retention, and extinction. In both TBI and PTSD, there are discernible signs of neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity, and oxidative damage. These disturbances produce neuronal death and degeneration, axonal injury, and dendritic spine dysregulation and changes in neuronal morphology. In laboratory studies, various forms of pharmacological or psychological treatments are capable of reversing these detrimental processes and promoting axonal repair, dendritic remodeling, and neurocircuitry reorganization, resulting in behavioral and cognitive functional enhancements. Based on these mechanisms, novel neurorestorative therapeutics using anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticonvulsant agents may promote better outcomes for comorbid TBI and PTSD.

High-dose transdermal nicotine and naltrexone: effects on nicotine withdrawal, urges, smoking, and effects of smoking.

Although treatment with transdermal nicotine replacement (TNR) has improved smoking abstinence rates, higher doses of TNR could improve effects on urge to smoke, nicotine withdrawal, and reinforcement from smoking, and naltrexone might further reduce reinforcement and urges. A laboratory investigation with 134 smokers using a 3 x 2 parallel-group design evaluated the effects of TNR (42-mg, 21-mg, or 0-mg patch) as crossed with a single dose of naltrexone (50 mg) versus placebo on urge to smoke, withdrawal, and responses to an opportunity to smoke (intake, subjective effects) after 10 hr of deprivation. Urge and withdrawal were assessed both prior to and after cigarette cue exposure. Only 42 mg TNR, not 21 mg, prevented urge to smoke, heart rate change, and cue-elicited increase in withdrawal. Both 21 and 42 mg TNR blocked cue-elicited drop in heart rate and arterial pressure. Naltrexone reduced cue-elicited withdrawal symptoms but not urges to smoke or deprivation-induced withdrawal prior to cue exposure. Neither medication significantly affected carbon monoxide intake or subjective effects of smoking except that 42 mg TNR resulted in lower subjective physiological activation. No interaction effects were found, and no results differed by gender. Results suggest that starting smokers with 42 mg TNR may increase comfort during initial abstinence, but limited support is seen for naltrexone during smoking abstinence.

Dopamine D1 receptor agonist treatment attenuates extinction of morphine conditioned place preference while increasing dendritic complexity in the nucleus accumbens core.

The dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) has a role in opioid reward and conditioned place preference (CPP), but its role in CPP extinction is undetermined. We examined the effect of D1R agonist SKF81297 on the extinction of opioid CPP and associated dendritic morphology in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a region involved with reward integration and its extinction. During the acquisition of morphine CPP, mice received morphine and saline on alternate days; injections were given immediately before each of eight daily conditioning sessions. Mice subsequently underwent six days of extinction training designed to diminish the previously learned association. Mice were treated with either 0.5mg/kg SKF81297, 0.8mg/kg SKF81297, or saline immediately after each extinction session. There was a dose-dependent effect, with the highest dose of SKF81297 attenuating extinction, as mice treated with this dose had significantly higher CPP scores than controls. Analysis of medium spiny neuron morphology revealed that in the NAc core, but not in the shell, dendritic arbors were significantly more complex in the morphine conditioned, SKF81297-treated mice compared to controls. In separate experiments using mice conditioned with only saline, SKF81297 administration after extinction sessions had no effect on CPP and produced differing effects on dendritic morphology. At the doses used in our experiments, SKF81297 appears to maintain previously learned opioid conditioned behavior, even in the face of new information. The D1R agonist's differential, rather than unidirectional, effects on dendritic morphology in the NAc core suggests that it may be involved in encoding reward information depending on previously learned behavior.

Cigarette smoking topography in smokers with schizophrenia and matched non-psychiatric controls.

Smoking is highly prevalent among people with schizophrenia, and little is known about factors that affect smoking in these patients. One basic question is whether smoking behavior differs for smokers with schizophrenia compared to equally nicotine-dependent smokers who do not have a major mental illness. In this study, 20 smokers with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (SCZ) and 20 non-psychiatric smokers (CON) underwent smoking topography assessments. The groups were matched on age, gender, daily smoking rate, years of regular smoking and nicotine dependence rating. Results indicate that, compared to the CON participants, the SCZ participants smoked significantly more total puffs (SCZ: 58.5 +/- 48.3; CON: 21.3 +/- 9.4) and puffs per cigarette (SCZ: 12.3 +/- 6.0; CON: 8.9 +/- 2.3) and had shorter inter-puff intervals (SCZ: 21.9 +/- 9.7 s; CON: 42.0 +/- 21.5 s), larger total cigarette puff volumes (SCZ: 583 +/- 169 ml; CON: 429 +/- 159 ml) and higher carbon monoxide boosts (SCZ: 3.8+/-5.4 ppm; CON: 1.0 +/- 2.5 ppm). Test-retest reliabilities were good to excellent for most smoking measures in both groups. These findings suggest that smokers with schizophrenia smoke more intensely than matched non-psychiatric smokers and that their smoking behavior is reliable when assessed under laboratory conditions.

Baclofen inhibits opiate-induced conditioned place preference and associated induction of Fos in cortical and limbic regions.

In C57BL/6 mice, pretreatment with GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen blocked the rewarding effects of morphine as measured by acquisition of conditioned place preference. Fos immunoreactivity, a neuronal activity marker, was induced in opiate conditioned mice in several forebrain regions including the nucleus accumbens core and shell, anterior cingulate cortex, and prelimbic cortex. Baclofen pretreatment blocked the induction of Fos in opiate conditioned subjects. These result suggest that GABA(B) receptor transmission has a role in reversing morphine-induced activation of motivational circuitry and conditioned reward.

Antipsychotics regulate cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and phosphorylated cyclic AMP response element-binding protein in striatal and cortical brain regions in mice.

Adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) signaling have been implicated in antipsychotic drug action. This study examines the effects of acute antipsychotic treatment using typical (haloperidol) and atypical (olanzapine) agents on cAMP signaling in dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex in mice. PKA catalytic subunit (PKA-c) and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB) levels were measured to evaluate antipsychotic drug effects. Nuclear PKA-c levels increased in the dorsal striatum after haloperidol and olanzapine treatment. In medial prefrontal cortex, olanzapine produced dose-dependent decreases in PKA-c and pCREB levels. The differential effects of typical versus atypical antipsychotic agents on PKA and pCREB in striatal and cortical regions illustrate the diverging actions of these agents on cAMP pathways.