Genetic diversity and genotype multiplicity of Plasmodium falciparum infections in symptomatic individuals in the maritime region of Togo.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the genotype prevalence and the multiplicity of Plasmodium falciparum infections in the maritime region of Togo. METHODS: We enrolled 309 symptomatic individuals aged from 6 months to 15 years from Bè/Lomé and Tsévié, two malaria endemic zones. The number and the proportions of merozoite surface proteins 1, 2 and 3 genotypes in patients were determined using capillary electrophoresis genotyping. We further investigated the possible association between transaminases and homocysteine, and the severity of the disease. RESULTS: Of the 309 samples genotyped, 210 tested positive to msp-1, 227 to msp-2 and 193 to msp-3. The nested PCR revealed 22 different alleles for the allelic family msp-1, 33 for msp-2 and 13 for msp-3. At each locus, the family distribution was 54.58% of K1, 25% of MAD20 and 20.42% of RO33 for msp-1, and 51.71% and 48.29% of FC27 and 3D7, respectively, for msp-2. For all these allelic variants, the distribution was associated with neither the severity of malaria nor the zone of habitation. Pearson correlation coefficients between either the levels of homocysteine or the transaminase and the severity of the disease were very low. CONCLUSION: The severity of malaria was not associated with higher multiplicity of infections and did not appear restricted to particular genotypes. More comprehensive explorations including immunity, genetic factors, nutritional and sociologic status of the population could clarify the situation.

Hookworm infection associates with a vaginal Type 1/Type 2 immune signature and increased HPV load.

Helminth infection-driven changes to immunity in the female reproductive tract (FRT) is an immune axis that is currently understudied but can have major implications for the control of FRT infections. Here we address how human hookworm infection associates with vaginal immune profile and risk of Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Stool, blood, cervical swabs and vaginal flushes were collected from women from the Central region of Togo to screen for hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale) and high carcinogenic risk HPV types, via Kato Katz and PCR, respectively. Cytokine, chemokine and immunoglobulin levels were analysed in cervicovaginal lavages and plasma samples. A pronounced mixed Type 1/Type 2 immune response was detected in the vaginal fluids of women with hookworm infection and this immune signature was a notable feature in hookworm-HPV co-infected women. Moreover, hookworm infection is positively associated with increased risk and load of HPV infection. These findings highlight helminth infection as a significant risk factor for acquiring a sexually transmitted viral infection and potentially raising the risk of subsequent pathology.

Anti-Th17 and anti-Th2 responses effects of hydro-ethanolic extracts of Aframomum melegueta, Khaya senegalensis and Xylopia aethiopica in hyperreactive onchocerciasis individuals' peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Hyperreactive onchocerciasis (HO) is characterized by a severe skin inflammation with elevated Th17-Th2 combined responses. We previously demonstrated the anthelminthic activity of Aframomum melegueta (AM), Xylopia aethiopica (XA) and Khaya senegalensis (KS) used by traditional healers to treat helminthiasis in the endemic area of Togo. However, their effect on severe onchocerciasis is poorly investigated. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-Th17 and anti-Th2 effects of hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS during HO. Onchocerca volvulus-infected individuals were recruited in the Central region of Togo in 2018. Isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from both generalized onchocerciasis (GEO) and HO forms were activated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies in the presence or absence of the hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS as well as their delipidated, deproteinized and deglycosylated fractions. After 72 hours, cytokines were assayed from cell culture supernatants. Then, flow cytometry was used to investigate the effects of the extracts on cell activation, proliferation, intracellular cytokines and T cells transcription factors. The production of both Th17 and Th2 cytokines IL-17A and IL-5 were significantly inhibited upon T-cell receptor (TCR) activation in the presence of the hydro-ethanolic extracts of AM, XA and KS in HO individuals' PBMCs in vitro. AM and XA inhibited CD4+RORC2+IL-17A+ and CD4+GATA3+IL-4+ cell populations induction. This inhibition was not Th1 nor Treg-dependent since both IFN-γ and IL-10 were also inhibited by the extracts. AM and XA did not interfere with T cell activation and proliferation for their inhibitory pathways. Lipid and protein compounds from AM and XA were associated with the inhibition of IL-17A. This study showed that in addition to their anthelminthic effects, hydro-ethanolic extracts of Aframomum melegueta, Xylopia aethiopica and Khaya senegalensis could downregulate both Th17 and Th2 responses and prevent the severe skin disorder observed.

HCV prevalence and co-infection with HIV among pregnant women in Saint Camille Medical Centre, Ouagadougou.

OBJECTIVE: To determine hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevalence and the rate of HCV/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection in pregnant women attending Saint Camille medical centre (SCMC) in Ouagadougou. METHODS: A total of 607 pregnant women, 16-45 years old, with <32 weeks amenorrhoea were screened for HCV and HIV using rapid tests. The majority of the women included in the study were previously known as HIV infected, as the centre is a reference centre for the programme of prevention against mother-to-child HIV transmission in the country. HCV RNA was extracted and quantified using the cDNA polymerase chain reaction with the nested primers at the 5' untranslated region. Transaminases were measured from plasma samples using spectrophotometric method. RESULTS: Of women, 62.27% were infected with HIV. The prevalence of HCV was 2.14% in the screened pregnant women: 1.75% in HIV-negative women and 2.38% in HIV-positive ones. This prevalence is not significantly different between HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women (P = 0.81). HCV RNA was found in all women with anti-HCV. A significant transaminase increase was noted in women infected with HCV (P = 0.01 and P < 0.01 for glutamic-pyruvic transaminase and glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, respectively). Risk factors significantly associated with HCV positivity in pregnant women included transfusion and genital excision. In addition, the infection was linked with the educational level of the women. CONCLUSION: The issue of this study revealed that effort should be made to promote safe medical practices and fight against women genital excision that are found to be the main risk factors associated with the HCV infection.

Hookworm Infections and Sociodemographic Factors Associated With Female Reproductive Tract Infections in Rural Areas of the Central Region of Togo.

Female reproductive tract infections (FRTIs) have a huge impact on women's health including their reproductive health in rural areas. Immunomodulation by helminth infections could influence the occurrence of FRTIs. This study aimed to investigate the association between FRTIs, hookworm infections, and sociodemographic factors in six rural areas of the central region of Togo. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographical information, and parasitological assessments were used to diagnose helminth infections. Moreover, cytobacteriological examination of vaginal swabs was performed for the diagnosis of candidiasis and bacterial vaginosis (BV), and real-time PCR method was used to determine sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Finally, a logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship and association of these factors to FRTIs. The prevalence of FRTIs was 82.3% including STIs (74.38%), BV (31.79%), and vulvovaginal candidiasis (9.85%). In detail, FRTIs were caused by bacteria such as Ureaplasma parvum (50%), Ureaplasma urealyticum (26.5%), and Mycoplasma hominis (17.5%) and viruses such us cytomegalovirus (5%) and human papilloma virus (HPV) (20%). No cases of Haemophilus ducreyi, Treponema pallidum, or varicella-zoster virus (VZV) were observed. Interestingly, women who had hookworm infections were at high risk of HPV. The use of condoms was a protective factor [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.23; 95% CI [0.11-0.51)], while the use of contraceptive methods was a risk factor [aOR = 2.49; 95% CI (1.19-5.19)] for STIs. The risk of BV was lower among participants who had more than four pregnancies [aOR = 0.27; 95% CI (0.11-0.65)]. Furthermore, women who had ever been paid for sexual intercourse were at high probability risk of vulvovaginal candidiasis [aOR = 16.92; 95% CI (1.46-196.48)]. This study highlighted risk factors associated with FRTIs, the control of which would help to reduce the incidence of these diseases. Health-care professionals could develop education and sensitization strategies based on these risk factors, and anti-hookworm treatment concepts may be taken into consideration to minimize the risk of HPV infections.

Ethnobotanical survey, anthelmintic effects and cytotoxicity of plants used for treatment of helminthiasis in the Central and Kara regions of Togo.

BACKGROUND: Traditional medicines are the main source of treatment of helminthiasis in endemic areas of Togo. The present study aimed to investigate the plants used by Traditional healers (THs) to treat helminth infections in endemic communities within the Central and Kara regions of Togo and to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of the three most cited plants. METHODS: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted from 19 to 24 June 2017 among traditional healers in the Central and Kara regions of Togo. The anthelmintic activity of the most cited plants namely Aframomum melegueta K. Schum, Khaya senegalensis A. Juss and Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich, was evaluated using microfilariae (Mf) of Litomosoides sigmodontis. The plants were evaluated for cytotoxicity according to the recommendation of NF EN ISO 10993-5 standard using the propidium iodide (PI) dye by flow cytometry on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. RESULTS: A total of 197 THs were interviewed and 41 plant species were recorded. Leguminosae (14.6%) and Annonaceae (9.7%) families constitute the highest number of species cited for treatment of helminth infections. Afromomum melegueta was the most cited by the THs for the treatment of onchocerciasis (UV = 0.036) while X. aethiopica was associated with the treatment of schistosomiasis (UV = 0.061) and lymphatic filariasis (UV = 0.061). There was a great agreement among the THs regarding ethnomedicinal uses of plants to treat helminthiasis with ICF values ranging from 0.57 to 0.67. The anthelmintic assay yielded lethal doses values of 233 µg/mL, 265 µg/mL and 550 µg/mL, respectively for X. aethiopica, A. melegueta and K. senegalensis. Afromomum melegueta and X. aethiopica presented no cytotoxicity, less than 20% death, whereas K. senegalensis induced moderate toxicity, 24 ± 8% death. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated the scientific rationale for the use of plants to treat helminthiasis in the Togolese traditional medicine. However, the use of K. senegalensis requires more caution since the plant is fairly toxic. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NA.

ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY OF PLANTS USED TO TREAT ASTHMA IN THE MARITIME REGION IN TOGO.

BACKGROUND: Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases in modern society and it is evident that its incidence and severity are increasing, however very little is known about the plants used in the management of the disease. This study therefore aimed to document the plants usage in the Togolese traditional medicine to treat asthma. METHODOLOGY: From January to June 2015, an ethnobotanical survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire with traditional healers (THs) in the southern region of Togo. The importance of the plants species was assessed by the calculated use values. RESULTS: In Total, 121 THs (92 males and 29 females) were interviewed and 98 plants species belonging to 54 families were identified as curing asthma. The most represented families were: Leguminosae with 7 species followed by Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae contributing with 6 and 5 species respectively. Based on the calculated use values the most important species were Carcica papaya L., Cataranthus roseus L., Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., Piper guineense Thonn., Eucalyptus citriodora Hook., Eucalyptus globules Labill. and Euphorbia hirta L. The leaves and the root were the parts predominantly used to prepare the formulations, mainly decoctions, administrated by oral route. Clinical manifestations such as wheezing (91.74%), difficulty as speaking or coughing (73.55%), dyspnea (66.94%), dry cough (52.89%), sweating and increased heart rate (52.07%) were used by TH to diagnose the disease. CONCLUSION: This study showed initial evidence of the use of plant materials by Togolese TH to heal asthma. These results could be a starting point for laboratory screenings.

An ethnobotanical study of plants used to treat liver diseases in the Maritime region of Togo.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In Togo, many persons still rely on plants for healing, however very little is known about the medicinal practices of the indigenous people. The present study aimed to document the medicinal plant utilization for the management of liver diseases in the Maritime region of the country. METHODOLOGY: This was an ethnobotanical survey conducted in the Maritime region of Togo from June to August 2015. The data were gathered from 104 traditional healers (TH) by direct interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. The calculated use values (UV) were used to analyze the importance of the cited plants. RESULTS: A total of 99 plant species belonging to 88 genera and 49 families were cited by the TH as curing the hepatic diseases. The most represented families were Caesalpiniaceae with 8 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae with 7 species, Apocynaceae and Asteraceae with 6 species each. The highest UV were recorded with Gomphrena celosioides (0.13), Xylopia ethiopica (0.12), Senna occidentalis (0.12), Bridelia ferruginea (0.12), Cymbopogon citratus (0.12), Kigellia Africana (0.09), Cassia sieberiana (0.08) and Sanseviera liberica (0.08), showing their importance in the management of liver dysfunction in the surveyed region. The main used parts were the leaves, followed by the roots, the whole plant, the rhizome and the bark, accounting for more than 10% each. The herbal medicines were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and administrated by oral route. CONCLUSION: This study showed that Maritime region of Togo has an important plant biodiversity that is exploited by the indigenous TH. However, some plants cited by the TH have not been studied for their possible hepatoprotective effects. These plants are therefore a starting point for biological screenings.

Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Malaria in the Plateau Region, Togo.

BACKGROUND: In Togo, malaria constitutes a major public health problem but, until now, the population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for healing. This study aimed to document medicinal plants used for malaria therapy in the Plateau region of the country. METHODOLOGY: Semi-structured questionnaire interviews were used to gather ethnobotanical and sociodemographic data from traditional healers of the study area. RESULTS: A total of 61 plants species belonging to 33 families were found to be in use for malaria therapy in the Plateau region. Caesalpiniaceae were the most represented family with 7 species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Poaceae with 4 species each. According to the relative frequency of citation (RFC), Newbouldia laevis Seem. (RFC =0.52), Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce (RFC =0.48), Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (RFC =0.43), and Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin and Barneby (RFC =0.40) were the most cited in the treatment of malaria in the traditional medicine in the Plateau region. The parts of plants used could either be the barks, roots, leaves, or whole plants. The recipes also could be a combination of various species of plants or plant parts. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous medicinal plants found in the Plateau region of Togo. Such results could be a starting point for in vitro antimalarial screenings. SUMMARY: 61 plants species from 33 families are use for malaria therapy in the Plateau region of TogoThe main families are Caesalpiniaceae Euphorbiaceae and PoaceaeThe most used species are Newbouldia laevis Seem. (RFC = 0.52), Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A. Bruce (RFC = 0.48), Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (RFC = 0.43), and Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin and Barneby (RFC = 0.40) Abbreviations Used: RFC: Relative frequency of citation, FC: Frequency of citation, Dec: Decoction, Orl: Oral route, Mac: Maceration, Jui: Juice, Inf: Infusion, Sau: Sauce, Kne: Kneading, Le: Leaves, Rt: Roots, Wp: Whole plant, St: Stem, Stb: Stem bark, Rh: Rhizome, Fr: Fruits, Pf: Plasmodium falciparum, IC50: Concentration of extract killing 50% parasites.

Renin-Angiotensin System Genes Polymorphisms and Essential Hypertension in Burkina Faso, West Africa.

Objective. This study aimed to investigate the association between three polymorphisms of renin-angiotensin system and the essential hypertension in the population of Burkina Faso. Methodology. This was a case-control study including 202 cases and 204 matched controls subjects. The polymorphisms were identified by a classical and a real-time PCR. Results. The AGT 235M/T and AT1R 1166A/C polymorphisms were not associated with the hypertension while the genotype frequencies of the ACE I/D polymorphism between patients and controls (DD: 66.83% and 35.78%, ID: 28.22% and 50.98%, II: 4.95% and 13.24%, resp.) were significantly different (p < 10(-4)). The genotype DD of ACE gene (OR = 3.40, p < 0.0001), the increasing age (OR = 3.83, p < 0.0001), obesity (OR = 4.84, p < 0.0001), dyslipidemia (OR = 3.43, p = 0.021), and alcohol intake (OR = 2.76, p < 0.0001) were identified as the independent risk factors for hypertension by multinomial logistic regression. Conclusion. The DD genotype of the ACE gene is involved in susceptibility to hypertension. Further investigations are needed to better monitor and provide individualized care for hypertensive patients.

Seroepidemiology of hepatitis B and C viruses in the general population of burkina faso.

Objectives. In Burkina Faso, few studies reported the prevalence of HBV and HCV in the general population. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of hepatitis B and C viruses in the general population and to determine the most affected groups in relation to the risk factors associated with the infection. Method. A voluntary testing opened to anyone interested was held at Saint Camille Medical Centre in Ouagadougou. Rapid tests were carried out on 995 persons who voluntarily answered a range of questions before the venous blood sampling. Results. The results revealed that the antigen HBs carriers in the general population represented 14.47% (144/995) and the prevalence of HCV was 1.00% (10/995). The difference between HBV's prevalence in men (18.58%) and that in women (11.60%) was statistically significant (P = 0.002). The most affected groups were undergraduated students (19.57%) and persons working in the informal sector (15.98%). The least affected group was high level students (8.82%). Conclusion. Burkina Faso is a country with a high prevalence of HBV, while the incidence of HCV is still low in the general population. Therefore, more campaigns on the transmission routes of HBV and HCV are needed to reduce the spread of these viruses in sub-Saharan Africa.

Survey of pesticide application on vegetables in the Littoral area of Togo.

Vegetable production in Togo is seriously affected by pests attack. To reduce damage, farmers indiscriminately use pesticides. Various studies have reported high concentrations of pesticide residues more than acceptable limits in vegetables and other edible food. The aim of the presented study is to study the attitudes and practices developed by vegetable growers about pesticides applications. A standardized questionnaires which included socio-professional factors, provisions and operations concerning the use of varieties of pesticides were addressed to 150 growers in vegetable farms along the Littoral of Togo. In order to complete data concerning pesticides, seven runoff private companies and agents of the 'Direction de la Protection des Végétaux' were interviewed. Data were statistical treated using Sphinx Plus. The survey showed that vegetable growers have an acceptable educational level (36% have more than 7 years of formal education) to exploit instructions concerning pesticide use, but more than 97% do not use recommended tools. Only 21% of them received training for pesticide use. Moreover, 84% of them did not usually wear gloves, and less than 30% used oro-nasal masks. Failure to observe minimum intervals between pesticide application and sale is worrying because extremely hazardous (Carbofuran and Cadusaphos) or moderately toxic (Cypermethrin, Dimethoate, Endosulfan, Chlorpyrifos-ethyl, Fipronil) are the products currently used. The presented study indicates that pesticides application in the survey area represents a potential risk for the environment, farmers and consumers. More investigations are needed to quantify pesticides residues on the vegetables currently con,umed and moreover, to determine the potential effect of those products on human and animals health.

Antiplasmodial and anti-inflammatory activities of Canthium henriquesianum (K. Schum), a plant used in traditional medicine in Burkina Faso.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Canthium henriquesianum (K. Schum) is traditionally used in Burkina Faso for the treatment of malaria, but has not been properly investigated, yet. The aim of this study was to characterize in vitro the antiplasmodial and the anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from Canthium henriquesianum (K. Schum). In parallel, extracts of Gardenia sokotensis (Hutch) and Vernonia colorata (Willd), also traditionally used together in Burkina Faso and already reported with antimalarial activity, were compared. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Plant extracts were tested in vitro for antimalarial activity against chloroquine susceptible (D10) and resistant (W2) strains of Plasmodium falciparum using the lactate dehydrogenase assay. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed on human dermal fibroblast (HDF) by the MTT assay. The selectivity index (SI) was used as the ratio of the activity against the parasites compared to the toxicity of the plant extract against HDF. In vitro cytokine production was assessed by ELISA technique. RESULTS: Canthium henriquesianum aqueous extract had a moderate antimalarial activity (IC50<50 µg/ml) with a good selectivity index (SI=HDF/D10>7). Canthium henriquesianum diisopropyl ether extract was the most potent inhibitor of parasite growth with an IC50 9.5 µg/ml on W2 and 8.8 µg/ml on D10 and limited toxicity (SI>2). Gardenia sokotensis and Vernonia colorata aqueous extracts were shown to be significantly less active (IC50≥50 µg/ml) with substantial toxicity. In addition, when the production of IL-1ß and TNFα by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or hemozoin (malaria pigment) stimulated human THP-1 monocytes was assayed, it was found that the extract of Canthium henriquesianum induced a dose-dependent inhibition of IL-1ß, but not of TNFα production, thus confirming its traditional use as antipyretic. By NMR analysis, the chromone was identified as the mostly represented compound in the diisopropyl ether extract of Canthium henriquesianum. Chromone however, was less active as antimalarial than the crude extract and it did not inhibit cytokine production at not toxic doses, indicating that other molecules in the total extracts contribute to the antiplasmodial and anti-inflammatory activity. CONCLUSION: Canthium henriquesianum seems to possess antimalarial activity in vitro and the ability to inhibit the production of the pyrogenic cytokine IL-1ß.

Epidemiology and antibiotic resistance of bacterial meningitis in Dapaong, northern Togo.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the seasonality of the bacterial meningitis and the antibiotic resistance of incriminated bacteria over the last three years in the northern Togo. METHODS: From January 2007 to January 2010, 533 cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) samples were collected from patients suspected of meningitis in the Regional Hospital of Dapaong (northern Togo). After microscopic examination, samples were cultured for bacterial identification and antibiotic susceptibility. RESULTS: The study included 533 patients (306 male and 227 female) aged from 1 day to 55 years [average age (13.00±2.07) years]. Bacterial isolation and identification were attempted for 254/533 (47.65%) samples. The bacterial species identified were: Neisseria meningitidis A (N. meningitidis A) (58.27%), Neisseria meningitidis W135 (N. meningitidis W135) (7.09%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) (26.77%), Haemophilus influenza B (H. influenza B) (6.30%) and Enterobacteriaceae (1.57%). The results indicated that bacterial meningitis occur from November to May with a peak in February for H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae and March for Neisseriaceae. The distribution of positive CSF with regards to the age showed that subjects between 6 and 12 years followed by subjects of 0 to 5 years were most affected with respective frequencies of 67.82% and 56.52% (P<0.001). Susceptibility tests revealed that bacteria have developed resistance to several antibiotics including aminosides (resistance rate >20% for both bacterial strains), macrolides (resistance rate > 30% for H. influenzae) quinolones (resistance rate >15% for H. influenzae and N. meningitidis W135). Over three years, the prevalence of S. pneumoniae significantly increased from 8.48% to 73.33% (P<0.001), while the changes in the prevalence of H. influenzae B were not statistically significant: 4.24%, vs. 8.89%, (P = 0.233). CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that data in African countries differ depending on geographical location in relation to the African meningitis belt. This underlines the importance of epidemiological surveillance of bacterial meningitis.

Medicinal plants use in central Togo (Africa) with an emphasis on the timing.

BACKGROUND: Plant-based remedies continue to play a key role in the health care of people in Togo; however, there is a lack of published data in medicinal plants and medical practices of the people in the country. OBJECTIVE: This study was aimed at documenting the plant utilization in the Tem folk medicine in the central region of Togo. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted with traditional healers in the central region of Togo using a semi-structured questionnaire. RESULTS: This study demonstrated that local specialists in the central region of Togo tend to agree with each other in terms of the plants used to treat diabetes (ICF = 0.38), infertility, and abdominal pains (ICF = 0.33), but cite a much more diverse groups of plants to treat problems related to arterial hypertension, sickle cell disease, and abscess. They use 144 herbal concoctions made of 72 plants, distributed among 36 botanical families. The Euphorbiaceae family with eight species was best represented in terms of the number of species. The species with the highest use value were Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (Meliaceae) (UV = 0.36), Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev. (Gentianaceae) (UV = 0.27), Trichilia emetica Vahl (Meliaceae) (UV = 0.25), and Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E. A. Bruce (Rubiaceae) (UV = 0.21). They also rely on the timing in the plant processing and the administration of herbal remedies. CONCLUSION: All these findings are based on empirical observations; laboratory screenings are needed to check the effectiveness of these plants.

Screening Togolese medicinal plants for few pharmacological properties.

BACKGROUND: Terminalia macroptera Guill. et Perr. (Combretaceae), Sida alba L. (Malvaceae), Prosopis africana Guill et Perr. Taub. (Mimosaceae), Bridelia ferruginea Benth. (Euphorbiaceae), and Vetiveria nigritana Stapf. (Asteraceae) are traditionally used in Togolese folk medicine to treat several diseases including microbial infections. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and hemolytic properties of the crude extracts of the above-mentioned plants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The antimicrobial and the antioxidant activities were assayed using the NCCLS microdilution method and the DPPH free radical scavenging, respectively. Human A+ red blood cells were used to perform the hemolytic assay. Phenolics were further quantified in the extracts using spectrophotometric methods. RESULTS: Minimal inhibitory concentrations in the range of 230-1800 µg/ml were recorded in the NCCLS broth microdilution for both bacterial and fungal strains with methanol extracts. The DPPH radical scavenging assay yielded interesting antioxidant activities of the extracts of P. africana and T. macroptera (IC(50) values of 0.003 ± 0.00 µg/ml and 0.05 ± 0.03 µg/ml, respectively). These activities were positively correlated with the total phenolic contents and negatively correlated with the proanthocyanidin content of the extracts. The hemolytic assay revealed that great hemolysis occurred with the methanol extracts of T. macroptera, S. longepedunculata, and B. ferruginea. CONCLUSION: These results support in part the use of the selected plants in the treatment of microbial infections. In addition, the plant showed an interesting antioxidant activity that could be useful in the management of oxidative stress.

Antimicrobial resistance of abnormal vaginal discharges microorganisms in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of bacterial strains and fungal strains infecting the vaginal tract and test their sensitivity to antibiotics in women attending Saint Camille Medical Centre in Ouagadougou. METHODS: From January 2008 to December 2009, a total of 2 000 vaginal swabs were cultivated for bacterial and fungal identification and isolation. Furthermore, bacterial strains were tested for their susceptibility to several antibiotics used in routine in the centre. RESULTS: The results revealed that microbial isolation and identification was attempted for 1 536/2 000 sample, a positivity rate of 76.80%. Candida albicans (48.76%), followed by Escherichia coli (16.67%), Streptococcus agalactiae (8.14%) and Staphylococcus aureus (7.55%) were the major agents of genital tract infections in patients. Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum combined accounted for less than 7%. Trichomonas vaginalis was identified in 1.04% cases. The antimicrobial tests revealed that the microorganisms developed resistance to several antibiotics including beta lactams. However, antibiotics such as cefamenzol, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin were still active on these bacteria. CONCLUSIONS: The results reveal that many sexually active women are infected by one or more microbial pathogens, probably because of the lack of hygiene or the adoption of some risky behaviors, such as not using condoms or having multiple sexual partners. Efforts should be made to address these points in the country.

Sub-Saharan Rubiaceae: a review of their traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities.

Rubiaceae family is a large family of 630 genera and about 13000 species found worldwide, especially in tropical and warm regions. These plants are not only ornamental but they are also used in African folk medicine to treat several diseases. Based on online published data and library bibliographic research, we herein reported accumulated information related to their traditional usages in sub-Saharan traditional medicine, their chemical composition and the screened pharmacological activities. Indeed, more than 60 species are used for more than 70 medicinal indications including malaria, hepatitis, eczema, oedema, cough, hypertension, diabetes and sexual weakness. Through biological screening following leads supplied with traditional healers, many of these plants exhibited antimalarial, antimicrobial, antihypertension, antidiabetic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Bioactive compounds including indole alkaloids, terpenoids and anthraquinones have been isolated from these bioguided fractionation studies. It is evidence that great attention has been paid to species such as Nauclea latifolia, Morinda lucida, Mitragyna inermis and Crossopteryx febrifuga; however, several compounds should be waiting to be discovered since none of these plants has been systematically investigated for its biochemical composition. According the current global health context with the recrudescence of HIV, much effort should be oriented towards this virus when screening Rubiaceae.

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of crude extracts from Togolese medicinal plants.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the antimalarial effect of a few plants in Togo folk medicine. METHODS: After ethnobotanical survey, Opilia celtidifolia, Pavetta corymbosa (P. corymbosa) and Tamarindus indica (T. indica) were selected for screening. In vitro antimalarial tests were performed on crude extracts against fresh clinical isolates of Plasmodium falciparum using the semi microtest. RESULTS: Different IC(50) values of the extracts ranged from 2.042 to 100.000 µg/mL. According to the results, the methanol extract of aerial part of P. corymbosa followed by aqueous extract of fruit of T. indica were the most active (IC(50) of 2.042 and 4.786 µg/mL, respectively). Qualitative test revealed the presence of alkaloids in the leaves of P. corymbosa that may be responsible for the activity of the plant. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides scientific evidence for usage of plant in the folk medicine, and further studies are needed for identification and purification of the active principles.

Herbal remedies and their adverse effects in Tem tribe traditional medicine in Togo.

In Africa, up to 80% of the population relies on herbal concoctions for their primarily health care. In Togo, western Africa, Tem tribe is a population with old knowledge of medicinal plants, however, still very little is known about their medical practices. The present study was conducted to access for the apprehension of adverse effects of traditional remedies by Tem traditional healers (TH). Enquiry was performed by interviews with healers from August to October 2007 in Tchaoudjo prefecture (Togo). The study allowed us to interview 54 TH including 41(75.93%) males and 13(24.07%) females, who cited 102 recipes assumed to have adverse effects. The recipes were used alone to cure several diseases including haemorrhoids (22.55%), female sexual disorders and infertility (21.57%), gastrointestinal disorders (18.63%), and malaria (6.86%). A total of 34 plants belonging to 21 families were cited to be components of the recipes. Euphorbiaceae and Mimosaceae families were the most represented, however, Nauclea latifolia, Khaya senegalensis, Pseudocedrela kotschyi and Xeroderris stuhlmannii were the main components of recipes linked to adverse effects. A total of 20 adverse effects were linked to the administration of theses drugs, and among them; diarrhoea, abdominal pains, polyuria, general weakness and vomiting were the most frequently encountered. These findings were in accordance with several reports of the literature concerning medicinal plants, although they were based on empirical observations. Laboratory screenings are needed to access for the effectiveness as well as the possible toxic effects of the recipes.