Attitudes about aggression and perpetration of Adolescent Dating Aggression: A cross-lagged panel model.

INTRODUCTION: Several cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have found associations between attitudes about aggression and aggressive behaviors. However, few studies examine all subtypes of Adolescent Dating Aggression (ADA)-physical, psychological/emotional, sexual, and stalking; occurring in person or electronically-and there is a paucity of longitudinal studies that follow adolescents over several years. METHODS: Middle school and high school students (N = 1240), in the Midwestern United States, participated in surveys one time per year for four years. Data from each year (Y1, Y2, Y3, & Y4) was used to conduct a cross-lagged panel analysis of attitudes about aggression and aggressive behaviors, among both cohorts. RESULTS: By Y4, approximately 46% of the middle school cohort and 60% of the high school cohort perpetrated some form of ADA. The cross-lagged panel analysis revealed significant cross-sectional associations in the middle school (Y1, Y2, & Y4) and high school (Y1 & Y2) cohorts. Aggressive behaviors were significantly associated with future aggressive behaviors for the middle and high school cohorts each year. Similarly, attitudes about aggression were significantly associated with attitudes in the following years for both cohorts. Among the middle school cohort, there were significant cross-lagged effects between aggressive behaviors in Y2 and attitudes about aggression in Y3, as well as aggressive behaviors in Y3 and attitudes about aggression in Y4. Among the high school cohort, a bidirectional association was found from Y2 to Y3. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest prevention programs should be implemented earlier, among middle school aged adolescents, and target factors beyond attitudes supporting aggression.

Onset Trajectories of Sexting and Other Sexual Behaviors Across High School: A Longitudinal Growth Mixture Modeling Approach.

Sexting is receiving substantial scholarly attention and is now considered commonplace in adolescence. Little is known, however, about the normative contexts and the development of adolescent sexting behavior, including the initiation of sexting in relation to other sexual behaviors. In this study, we used growth mixture modeling to identify classes of onset trajectories for sexual behaviors across high school. Participants included 429 high school students (54% female) who completed annual assessments of sexual behavior over a three-year period. We identified four distinct classes: postponement (9%) with no behaviors other than hand-holding and kissing initiated by Grade 11, gradual onset (44%) with sexting and other sexual behaviors emerging incrementally across high school, continuous onset (32%) with sexting and other sexual behaviors within the first three years of high school, early onset (15%) with initiation of sexting and all other sexual behaviors prior to or by the end of Grade 9. Boys were more likely than girls to be members of the postponement versus gradual onset class, while Black students were more likely than White students to be members of the early versus gradual onset class. Sexting behavior appears to be common in adolescence and co-emerges with genital contact behavior across varying trajectories of sexual development. These findings provide the foundation for contextualizing sexting within normative sexual development. Further, this information can inform efforts to promote sexual health.

Feminine Discrepancy Stress and Psychosocial Maladjustment Among Adolescent Girls.

Discrepancy stress, stress about being perceived to not conform to one's gender role (i.e., gender role discrepancy), has demonstrated effects on risky sexual and violent behaviors. However, evidence of these effects has been limited to men and boys, neglecting the impact gender role discrepancy and discrepancy stress may have on girls. In addition, no study to date, has assessed the mental health correlates of gender role discrepancy and discrepancy stress. In the current study, we sought to elucidate the relationship between perceived feminine discrepancy and feminine discrepancy stress and psychosocial maladjustment while controlling for trauma symptoms stemming from the potential repercussions of feminine discrepancy. Maladjustment was measured by creating a second-order latent factor derived from four first-order latent constructs: sexual behavior, substance use, mood disorder symptoms, and hopelessness. Data are drawn from a cross-sectional sample of female students in middle and high school (N = 643) who completed self-report questionnaires. Using structural equation modeling, we found girls reporting feminine discrepancy (i.e., less feminine than the average girl) were more likely to report feminine discrepancy stress and trauma symptomatology. Controlling for feminine discrepancy and trauma symptoms, the relationship between discrepancy stress and maladjustment was positive and significant. Additionally, girls reporting feminine discrepancy scored higher on trauma symptomatology, and trauma demonstrated a strong direct effect on psychosocial maladjustment. These data suggest that developing trauma focused prevention strategies that incorporate social norms around gender socialization may have an impact on multiple behavioral and mental health problems.

Masculine Discrepancy Stress and Psychosocial Maladjustment: Implications for Behavioral and Mental Health of Adolescent Boys.

Gender role discrepancy (GRD), or nonconformity to socially prescribed gender roles, has been linked to a multitude of adverse mental and behavioral health outcomes. Masculine discrepancy stress (MDS), stress about being perceived not to conform to one's gender role, may explain the relationship between GRD and deleterious health outcomes. However, research on MDS has primarily been restricted to adult males. This leaves a critical gap pertaining to the potential effect of MDS on adolescent boys, who may be more malleable and susceptible to the influence and pressures of gender socialization. In the current study, data are drawn from a sample of adolescent male students (N = 592) who completed self-report questionnaires. We employed structural equation modeling to test the effects of GRD and MDS on psychosocial maladjustment measured via sexual behavior, substance use, violence, mood disorder symptoms, and hopelessness. In addition, we controlled for critical risk factors including sociodemographic characteristics, adverse childhood experiences, trauma symptoms, and neighborhood disorganization. Findings indicate significant potentiating effects of MDS on maladjustment while there were direct protective effects of GRD. These data suggest that developing prevention strategies that incorporate social norms pertaining to gender socialization may have an impact on multiple behavioral and mental health problems.

In Search of Modifiable Risk and Protective Factors for Teen Dating Violence.

The present research explores the additive and interactive effects of anger or hostility (A/H), acceptance of violence (AoV), and constructive conflict resolution strategies (CRS) on the perpetration of physical and sexual teen dating violence (TDV). Adolescents completed surveys assessing physical and sexual TDV perpetration, A/H, AoV, and positive CRS. While the findings require replication with longitudinal data, the results suggest that developing interventions to modify AoV and A/H may have the potential to prevent instances of TDV perpetration among both boys and girls. The results for CRS were mixed and necessitate further exploration. These cross-sectional data provide insight into potentially fruitful areas of exploration for the development and tailoring of prevention strategies for teens at risk for physical and sexual TDV perpetration.

Adolescent stalking and risk of violence.

Stalking perpetration and the associated risk for violence among adolescents has generally been neglected. In the present study, 1236 youth completed surveys assessing empirically established stalking indicators, threats and aggression toward stalking victims, dating violence, and violent delinquency. Latent Profile Analysis identified 3 latent classes of boys: non-perpetrators (NP), hyper-intimate pursuit (HIP), and comprehensive stalking perpetrators (CSP) and, and 2 classes for girls: NP and HIP. Boys in the CSP class were the most violent youth on nearly all indices with boys in the HIP class demonstrating an intermediate level of violence compared to NP boys. Girls in the HIP class were more violent than NP girls on all indices. These findings suggest stalking in adolescence merits attention by violence prevention experts. In particular, juvenile stalking may signify youth at risk for multiple forms of violence perpetrated against multiple types of victims, not just the object of their infatuation.

Longitudinal Effects of Electronic Dating Violence on Depressive Symptoms and Delinquent Behaviors Across Adolescence.

Depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors that emerge during adolescence pose both short- and long-term negative outcomes. Though there is growing evidence that exposure to teen dating violence is also associated with a greater likelihood of depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors such as engaging in peer violence and substance use, less is known about the effects of specific forms of electronic dating violence (i.e., electronic harassment, electronic coercion, and electronic monitoring) across adolescence on depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors. Data were drawn from a 4-year prospective longitudinal study of two cohorts of youth followed from age 12 to 15 (n = 526, 52% female) and age 15 to 18 (n = 592, 53% female). Two mixed-effects models (stratified by cohort) were employed to evaluate depressive symptoms and delinquent behavior outcomes by exposure to electronic harassment, electronic coercion, and electronic monitoring, while accounting for verbal dating violence, physical dating violence, sexual dating violence, exposure to threat-based adverse childhood experiences, exposure to deprivation-based adverse childhood experiences, and gender across all four waves of data collection. Higher exposure to electronic sexual coercion was predictive of increased depression (ß = .015, p = .018). Increased exposure to electronic sexual coercion (ß = .007, p = .004) and electronic monitoring (ß = .008, p = .045) were both predictive of more delinquency across adolescence. By delineating the effects of in-person verbal, physical, and sexual dating violence with unique electronic domains, we found unique additional risk from domains of electronic dating violence, which was particularly pronounced for youth who reported electronic sexual coercion. Electronic sexual coercion heightens the risk of depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors in males and females beyond the risk presented by in-person forms of dating violence and should be accounted for in prevention and intervention programs. Future research should explore the effect of perceived normativity on the prevalence of electronic harassment and subsequent influence on outcomes.

Adapting an evidence-based positive youth development intervention to prevent sexual and teen dating violence.

Adapting evidence-based interventions (EBIs) guided by implementation science frameworks is a promising way to accelerate the translation of effective violence prevention in schools. School-based interventions offer an opportunity to reduce the risk of multiple forms of violence, including sexual violence (SV) and teen dating violence (TDV). EBIs in schools reach large populations of adolescents, including those underserved in other settings. Although specific SV/TDV prevention programs exist, evaluations indicate limited effectiveness over time. We adapted systematically the Youth Empowerment Solutions (YES) violence-prevention EBI using key adaptation steps described in implementation science frameworks to expand the scope of YES to integrate an SV/TDV focus and meet the needs of local youth. In the formative project year, the team adapted YES to integrate SV/TDV content informed by key steps outlined in frameworks including ADAPT-ITT, research-tested intervention programs, and map of the adaptation process. These steps include: (a) assess school and student needs, (b) identify, select an EBI, (c) consult with experts with knowledge in the new topic area (SV/TDV), (d) collaborate with community partners and stakeholders, (e) identify areas for adaptation while maintaining fidelity to core elements, (f) train staff, (g) pilot test adapted materials, (h) implement, and (i) evaluate. We developed the YES for Healthy Relationships (YES-HR), a school-based prevention program that retained core elements of YES, including content related to mastery, adult resources, leadership skills, and community engagement, while integrating SV/TDV-specific content (e.g., consent). Implementation science adaptation frameworks are useful in guiding the systematic adaptation of existing EBIs to meet the needs of youth.

Family experiences of young adult sex offender registration.

Since 1994, policies have been instituted throughout the United States that require sex offenders to register their personal information with law enforcement officials (Jacob Wetterling Crimes against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Program, 1994). With the passage of additional laws, this information is now available to the public via the Internet or a request to a police department. These laws have brought about consequences for both the registrants and for members of their families. A focus group was held with four mothers who have sons listed on the Michigan Sex Offender Registry. Psychological and social consequences of registration were found and policy implications are discussed.

Behavioral and Mental Health Correlates of Youth Stalking Victimization: A Latent Class Approach.

INTRODUCTION: Although recognized as a public health problem, little attention has been paid to the problem of stalking among youth. Latent profile analysis was used to identify latent groups of adolescent stalking victims and their behavioral and mental health correlates. METHODS: A cross-sectional sample of 1,236 youths were randomly selected from 13 schools stratified by community risk level (i.e., low, moderate, and high risk) and gender. Students completed surveys assessing behavioral indicators of stalking victimization, as well as substance use, sexual behavior, dating violence, and psychiatric symptoms. Data were collected in 2013 and data analyses were performed in 2015. RESULTS: Analysis indicated the presence of a non-victim class, a minimal exposure class, and a victim class for boys and girls alike. Approximately 14% of girls and 13% of boys were in the stalking victim class. Adolescents in the victim class reported more symptoms of post-traumatic stress, mood disorder, and hopelessness, as well as more instances of alcohol use, binge drinking, and physical dating violence victimization. Girls in the victim class also reported engaging in sexting behaviors and oral sex with significantly more partners than their non-victim peers. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide valuable knowledge of the prevalence and pertinent health correlates of stalking victimization in adolescence. The data suggest a substantial proportion of adolescents are victims of stalking and are likewise at risk for a number of deleterious health outcomes. As such, this population merits further attention by prevention researchers and practitioners.

Masculine discrepancy stress, teen dating violence, and sexual violence perpetration among adolescent boys.

PURPOSE: Addressing gender norms is integral to understanding and ultimately preventing violence in both adolescent and adult intimate relationships. Males are affected by gender role expectations which require them to demonstrate attributes of strength, toughness, and dominance. Discrepancy stress is a form of gender role stress that occurs when boys and men fail to live up to the traditional gender norms set by society. Failure to live up to these gender role expectations may precipitate this experience of psychological distress in some males which, in turn, may increase the risk to engage in physically and sexually violent behaviors as a means of demonstrating masculinity. METHODS: Five-hundred eighty-nine adolescent males from schools in Wayne County, Michigan completed a survey assessing self-perceptions of gender role discrepancy, the experience of discrepancy stress, and history of physical and sexual dating violence. RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses indicated boys who endorsed gender role discrepancy and associated discrepancy stress were generally at greater risk to engage in acts of sexual violence but not necessarily physical violence. CONCLUSIONS: Boys who experience stress about being perceived as "sub-masculine" may be more likely to engage in sexual violence as a means of demonstrating their masculinity to self and/or others and thwarting potential "threats" to their masculinity by dating partners. Efforts to prevent sexual violence perpetration among male adolescents should perhaps consider the influence of gender socialization in this population and include efforts to reduce distress about masculine socialization in primary prevention strategies.

Iraqi American refugee youths' exposure to violence: relationship to attitudes and peers' perpetration of dating violence.

This exploratory study examines the relationships between exposure to violence in the community, school, home and dating relationships among Iraqi American youth. As Iraqi American youth are traditionally not allowed to date, dating violence measures focused on attitudes about and perceptions of abuse occurring in the relationships of friends. The number of friends known who were secretly dating was the most significant predictor of acceptability of dating violence and perceived prevalence of abuse. Youth who experienced child abuse perceived higher rates of dating violence among their peers. Findings highlight the complexities of prevention and intervention of teen dating violence within secretive relationships.

Attitudinal correlates of girls' use of violence in teen dating relationships.

This article explores the applicability of the Theory of Planned Behavior in understanding female perpetrated adolescent dating violence. The Theory of Planned Behavior is intended to predict behavioral intention by examining the actor's perceptions of consequences and rewards associated with the behavior, social acceptability of the behavior, and behavioral control. Previous research on adult populations has found that the planned behavior model is correlated with violent behavior among males (Tolman, Edleson, & Fendrich, 1996), but not females (Kernsmith, 2005). The current study found that the model partially explained the violent behavior of girls, but only perceptions of social norms were significant.

Public attitudes toward sexual offenders and sex offender registration.

This study explores the relationship between fear of various types of sexual offenders and a belief that those sexual offenders should be subject to sex offender registration. We hypothesized that those who offend against children would elicit the most fear; consequently, the most feared offenders would be rated as most requiring registration. As part of a telephone survey, 733 participants answered questions about fear of sex offenders and agreement with requirements about registration for offenders convicted of incest, statutory rape, marital rape, pedophilia, date rape, and an offense committed more than 10 years prior. Results indicated that all types of sexual offenders elicited some fear from respondents, and fear was related to support of registration requirements.

The relationship between sex offender registry utilization and awareness.

Although registries of convicted sexual offenders are widely popular, little is known about the impact of the policies. The goal of this research was to measure one aspect of the impact of registry policies: patterns of usage of publicly available registries. Using a computer-assisted telephone survey, Michigan residents were questioned about their utilization of the sex offender registry and whether they believed any sex offenders lived in their community. The authors found that few respondents had looked at the registry. Reasons respondents provided for nonuse included lack of interest in the registry, living in a "safe" area, and not having children. Although it was found that registry use was related to awareness of offenders in the community, after viewing the registry, nearly half of the survey participants still believed no offenders lived in the community. Logistic regression was used to predict both registry use and awareness of offenders in the community.